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EMERSION-EMERY.

been found in the East, in localities not at present known, but the name E. or ORIENTAL E. is often given to a very rare, beautiful, and precious green variety of SAPPHIRE (q. v.).

mental faculty of his reader, but it does not satisfy or settle any question conclusively. Hence his speculations on religion, philosophy, literature, and life, though stimulating to the young, are coldly regarded by men of mature and sage understanding, E. has nowhere formally defined the fundamental basis of his speculation. He appears to be what is called a Pantheist, at least he rejects entirely that kind of Theism which separates God from who is not one with the blowing clover and the Spiritual Personality. He will not recognise a God falling rain.' In regard to man and his destinies, he entertains exalted hopes; but religion is not in his eyes a divinely revealed (in the ordinary sense) or infallible thing; all creeds are merely 'the necessary

E. COPPER is a beautiful and very rare E. green crystallised mineral, also called DIOPTASE, found only in the Kirghis Steppe, and composed of about 39 parts silica, 50 protoxide of copper, and 11 water. EMERSION, the reappearance of one heavenly body from behind another, after an eclipse or occul-nature, and which looks upon him as simply a living tation. The immersions and emersions of Jupiter's first satellite are particularly useful for finding the longitude of places. Minutes or scruples of emersion are the arc of the moon's orbit passed over by her centre, from the time she begins to emerge from the earth's shadow to the end of the eclipse.

This

E'MERY (Fr. émeril, Ger. schmergel, Gr. smiris; allied to smear), a variety of Corundum (q. v.), or of the same mineral species of which corundum and sapphire (with oriental ruby, &c.) are also varieties. It agrees with them very perfectly in composition, hardness, and specific gravity; but is dull, opaque, and not crystallised, sometimes of a grayish black, and sometimes of a blue colour. It occurs both massive and disseminated. Its masses, although very compact, have a somewhat granular structure. It is found in several parts of Europe, in Asia Minor, Greenland, &c., generally in masses scattered through aqueous deposits, but in one locality in Saxony in beds of steatite in a schistose rock. The E. of commerce is chiefly obtained from the island of Naxos. Being very hard, it is much used for grinding glass and polishing metals and other hard substances. It is found in lumps, having a granular structure. It is composed of alumina, oxide of iron, and silica, with a little lime, in proportions varying considerably with different specimens. The following may be taken as an average: alumina, 82; oxide of iron, 10; silica, 6; lime, 14.

and structural action of the human mind' in the EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, the most celebrated course of its historical progress. Man made them of American philosophers, was born at Boston, all (Christianity included), and he believes, that United States, May 25, 1803, entered Harvard from the inexhaustible depths of our nature there University in 1817, graduated in 1821, and became will come forth in due time new and ever higher pastor of a Unitarian congregation in Boston in faiths, which will supersede those that have gone 1829. This office, however, he resigned in 1832, before. E. is often said to have derived a good on account of the gradually increasing differences deal of his thinking from Thomas Carlyle. between his own modes of thought and those of is true, but not in any sense that can justify the his hearers. The next year he spent in England. vulgar criticism which makes him out to be a He is essenSince then, he has led a quiet, retired, meditative Yankee pocket-edition of Carlyle.' life, chiefly at Concord. Among the earliest notice- tially an original and independent genius. Some able productions of his pen were two lectures, of his writings have been translated into French, or orations, entitled Nature and Man Thinking, and have excited considerable admiration among the delivered before the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Parisian transcendentalists. See Montégut's Essais Cambridge, United States, in 1837. In the follow-de Philosophie Américaine (1851). ing year appeared his Literary Ethics, an Oration; and in 1811, The Method of Nature, Man the Reformer, the first series of his Essays, and several lectures, &c. Three years later, he issued a second series of Essays. In 1846, he published a volume of poems. In 1849, he revisited England, to deliver a series of lectures on Representative Men. When published, they were generally reckoned the most vigorous and intelligible of all the author had then written. In 1852, in conjunction with W. H. Channing and J. F. Clarke, he published the Memoirs of Margaret Fuller (q. v.), Marchesa d'Ossoli. English Traits appeared in 1856, and the Conduct of Life in 1860. There is perhaps no living writer of note regarding whom opinions are so divided as Emerson. Some critics have not hesitated to place him among the profoundest thinkers belonging to the present age, while others, equally confident, have pronounced him to be in the main a sciolist and charlatan. Both of these opinions, but especially the latter, may be dismissed as absurd. No man who is himself sincere, will doubt the sincerity of the American philosopher. His entire conduct of life' would be otherwise inex- It is prepared for use by first breaking it into plicable. It is true, however, that the subtlety of lumps about the size of a hen's egg, then crushing his intellect, which is far more wonderful than either these to powder by stampers. It is then sifted to its breadth or depth, often deceives him by the various degrees of fineness, which are numbered facility with which it discovers divine meanings according to the meshes of the sieve. Plate-glass in nature and the human soul. E. never pauses manufacturers and others separate E. powder into to harmonise his thoughts and convictions; and, it different degrees of fineness by the method of must be admitted, has rather a theatrical penchant elutriation (q. v.). A number of copper cylinders for paradox. He knows that an idea is more of graduated capacities are placed in a row, and. forcible and attractive, and can be clothed in more filled with water; the E., churned up with an brilliant and picturesque phraseology when it is abundance of water, is admitted by a pipe into not qualified, and, as it were, dragged down from the smallest, it then passes to the next in size, its elevation by the influence of other ideas. He and finally flows from the largest; and thus, as loves to watch the play of thought, and to dream a given quantity of water with E. suspended and muse about it, borne up on the wing of a pure and delicate imagination, rather than to weigh its significance, or to build it up into an 'intellectual system' or a creed. E. thus belongs to the class of minds which are intuitional rather than reflective, and subtle rather than sagacious. His thinking charms, animates, and vividly excites the

in it, passes in equal times through vessels of varying capacities, the amount of agitation will obviously be greatest in the smallest vessel, least in the largest, and in like proportion with the intermediate; the largest particles, therefore, sink in the smaller vessel, and so on till only the very finest will reach the largest vessel. In this

EMESA-EMIGRATION.

the whole class of expectorants and irritants; the latter of which, however, with the exception of sulphate of zinc, and perhaps mustard and water, form a dangerous kind of emetics, which should never be administered when the milder kinds can be procured.

manner, any number of gradations of fineness may in wine; squill, lobelia, and, generally speaking, be obtained, according to the number and sizes of the vessels. Elutriation in oil or gum-water is sometimes used on a smaller scale, the E. being stirred up in the liquid, and portions poured off at different intervals of time, the finest being, of course, the last to settle. The use of the oil or gum is to make the subsidence take place more slowly.

E. thus prepared is used for a great many important purposes in the arts. Being next in hardness to diamond-dust and crystalline corundum, the lapidary uses it for cutting and polishing many kinds of stone. Glass-stoppers of all kinds are ground into their fittings with it. Plate-glass is ground flat by its means; it is also used in glasscutting, and in grinding some kinds of metallic fittings. When employed for the polishing of metals, it has to be spread on some kind of surface to form a sort of fine file. E. paper, E. cloth, E. sticks, E. cake, and E. stone, are various contrivances for such purposes.

E. paper is made by sifting E. over paper which has been covered with a coating of glue. It is used either by wrapping it round a fine file, or a stick, or in the hand, according to the form of the work. See POLISHING OF METALS.

E. cloth is made like E. paper, with coarse calico substituted for the paper. The E. does not adhere so well as to paper, and it is therefore not used by metal-workers, who work E. paper till smooth with wear, but is chiefly used for purposes where the hand alone is used, and paper would tear.

E. sticks are used for the same purposes as E. paper wrapped round files; they are made of deal sticks shaped like files, then glued over, and dipped once or twice in a heap of emery.

E. cake is a compound of bees-wax, suet, and E., melted and well worked together. It is applied to buffing wheels, &c.

E. stone is a kind of earthen-ware mixed with E., formed by pressing a mixture of clay and E. into suitable moulds, and then firing, like common earthen-ware. It is moulded into wheels, laps, &c. Its hardness and cutting power are very considerable. EMESA. See HEMS, or HOMS.

EMETINE. See IPECACUANHA.

EMIGRATION is the passing from one part of the world to another for the purpose of permanently settling in it. People going thus from one district of the same state to another-especially if it be a distant part, with different habits and physical peculiarities are sometimes said to emigrate, and in this way the term has been often applied to the English and Scotch settlers in Ireland. In its established signification, however, the word now refers to those who leave the state or dominions in which they have heretofore lived, and in this sense the term applies to those going to the colonies, though these are like the United Kingdom, under the authority of the British crown. In the country which people leave, they are called emigrants or wanderers out-in that in which they settle, they are usually called immigrants. Jacob and his family were immigrants to Egypt, and their descendants became emigrants from that country when they went to inherit the promised land.

The Greeks were addicted to emigration, owing, it has been said, to the many political contests which drove the weaker party from home. Greek emigrants planted colonies on the borders of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, carrying them as far northward as France, where they established the city of Marseille. The Romans were great colonisers, but by conquest rather than emigration. They disliked leaving Italy; and the military and civil officers necessary to rule a colony were generally the only Romans who abode in it. These even did not, in general, settle in the colonies with their families, but were recalled after a certain period of service, the whole arrangement much resembling that for the government of British India.

The migrations of the northern tribes who overran the Roman empire, are well known in history; their wanderings may be said, indeed, to have continued down to the 13th century. Those who wandered from the north into France, where they acquired great territories, became known as Normans, and were remarkable for entirely throwing off the language and manners, and even all the traditions of their original homes, and becoming the most civilised and courtly portion of the French people. But though thus changed, they still continued to wander, spreading over Britain, Sicily, and the intervening portions of Europe.

EMETICS, medicines given for the purpose of producing Vomiting (q. v.). They are given when it is desirable to relieve the stomach of some noxious or indigestible substance, as a narcotic poison, or excess of food, or some special article of diet which has disagreed. Emetics are also administered in cases of fever, where the copious secretion they produce from the glands of the stomach and intestines is supposed to have a directly curative effect, aided, perhaps, by the sedative action of emetics upon the circulation and nervous system. There is a considerable amount of evidence to shew, that emetics have the power of cutting short typhus and other fevers in the earliest stage, and afterwards of making the attack of the disease less severe. In diseases of the respiratory organs, emetics are given as the quickest and safest method of removing accumulated mucus from the air-passages; and in Croup (q. v.), their action is especially favourable, being often followed by expectoration and a rapid improve ment in the suffocative symptoms. Emetics are to be given with great caution, however, in all very depressed states of the system, as their primary action is to produce Nausea (q. v.), which is attended always with more or less diminution of the vital power, and often with great depression of the heart's action, amounting to syncope or fainting. The emigration fields at the present day are the The principal emetics are the preparations of anti-territory still called the United States of America, mony, zinc, and copper; ipecacuanha in powder or the British colonies in America, and the volonies in

The discovery of America opened a vast new field for emigration, which was taken immediate advantage of by the Spanish and Portuguese, and later, by the British, the French, the Germans, and the Dutch. In the 17th c., many of the English Puritans, persecuted in, or discontented with, their own country, found it more congenial to their tastes to live together in a new country, where they would be free from the presence of those who did not sympathise with them, and they thus founded the New England colonies. It is singular that, in the 19th c., an attempt should be made to revive the plan of emigrating for the purpose of maintaining an exclusive church, as, for instance, in the English High Church colony of Canterbury, and the Scotch Free Church colony of Otago.

EMIGRATION.

South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. There is a great distinction to be taken between colonies fit for emigration and those dependencies of the British crown held for other purposes. India, for instance, the greatest dependency of the crown, is totally unsuited for emigration. The British people who go there, with the exception of a few merchants, go to form the civil and military staff which rules the country. They stay there no longer than they can help, and instead of living on from generation to generation, send home their children in early youth, families of British origin having a tendency to degenerate, both physically and mentally, by long residence there. It is useless for working-people to go there, as every kind of work is done in some way or other by the natives much cheaper than it could be by Europeans, and the same may be said of every colony in the hot latitudes.

As a question in political economy, opinions about emigration have oscillated violently. At one time it has been prohibited, at another encouraged by all kinds of tempting offers held out to emigrants, while teachers of political economy have proclaimed that there can never be too much emigration. The conclusion to which we are coming in this, as in so many other questions in political economy is, that what is good for the individual members of a community is good for the community collectively-if people can improve their condition by emigrating, it is as well that they should emigrate; but if other wise, they had better stay at home. It might seem unnecessary to promulgate a doctrine which every man's self-interest should teach him, but unfortunately emigration is one of the matters on which the populace have been liable to delusions which have produced great mischief. Sometimes poor workmen have crowded in where labour was superabundant and capital deficient; at others, men have taken their capital to districts where there was no employ. ment for it, and the unnaturally high price of the necessaries of life has immediately absorbed it all. Young gentlemen, with nothing but showy accomplishments, have gone to the backwoods of America, where they could only prosper by ceaseless toil in felling and clearing. Ambitious, discontented artisans have wandered to the wide pastures of Australia, where they could only get a scanty subsistence as hut-keepers or assistant shepherds, not having skill enough to be intrusted with the charge of stock. Such mistakes have originated from people's ignorance of the fate of those who have gone before, it being generally taken for granted that the emigrant has gone away for his benefit, whereas it has often been for his ruin, and to meet an untimely death.

in Australia, where it prevailed, capitalists, instead of buying land, squatted,' as it was termed, and the government had to countenance the system, by charging them a small rent or squatting licence. There was one shape, however, in which it was found necessary for the government to interferethe protection of emigrants, so far as possible, from cruelty and imposition. Conducting emigration is a trade in which a large body of men are engaged. Before he leaves his own country, the intending emigrant, through means of agents who take up that line of business, can not only be shipped for a distant port, but can contract for his removal inland to his final place of settlement, and can even contract for the purchase of a plot of ground, or for the sale of his labour. The temptations and the opportunities for imposition in contracts to be fulfilled so far away from the place where they are undertaken, is obvious, and the instances of cruelty and rapacity exhibited in the emigration trade are among the most atrocious that have ever disgraced human nature. These led to the appointment of a department of government called the Emigration Commission, and to the passing of the Passengers' Act of 1849, which regulates the build and character of the vessels which may carry emigrants to certain points, limits the number that may be conveyed, requires the sufficiency of the provisions and other stores to be certified, and provides for proper medical attendance. The British government cannot, of course, enforce obedience to their regulations in vessels belonging to citizens of the United States, after these have gone to sea; but before allowing such vessels to receive emigrants, the owners must find security in this country for the performance of their undertakings, and to a considerable extent the American government has co-operated with ours for the protection of emigrants.

The greatest amount of emigration from any one country is from the United Kingdom. There is also a continual stream of emigration from Germany, which has formed several separate German communities in the States of America, and also in the British colonies there, and in Australia. A new kind of emigration, which has come under the charge of the British authorities, is that of hill coolies from India, and of Chinese, both for the purpose of supplying free labour in the sugar-growing and other tropical colonies where Europeans cannot work with safety. A difficulty which more or less attends all kinds of emigration is peculiarly felt in this kind-viz., that of keeping the two sexes at anything near to an equality.

The annual reports of the Emigration Commissioners afford a continued series of statistics on emiThe standard difficulty is the want of adjustment gration, especially from the United Kingdom. From of capital to labour. This is enhanced by the circum- the 21st of these, coming down to the end of the stance, that those who wish to emigrate are gener-year 1860, it appears that the total number who had ally persons feeling the pressure of poverty at home. emigrated from the United Kingdom for 46 yearsThe man, however, who goes to a place where there viz., from 1815 inclusive-was 5,046,067. Emigration is no capital to employ him with either his own received a great impulse from the commercial crisis or some other person's-is just in the position of of 1847, and the potato disease at the same period. a shipwrecked mariner cast on the shore. It has In 1845, the total number was 93,501; in 1846, it been justly remarked, that perfect emigration should was 129,851; and in 1847, it reached 258,270. The consist of a transplantation of home-society with largest number who emigrated in any one year was all its several classes and institutions, including 368,764 in 1851. The smallest number in any year capitalists employing labour, artisans of various during the last 20 was in 1843-viz., 57,210. The kinds, members of the learned professions, teachers, former (viz., the largest number) were distributed and clergymen. An ingenious plan for bringing about thus: to the North American colonies, 32,873; to such a distribution was called the Wakefield system the United States, 244,261; to the Australian coloof emigration, after the name of its inventor. The nies and New Zealand, 87,881, and to other places, foundation of the plan was a high charge for land- 3749. The other number (the smallest) were thus £1 per acre, the money so advanced by capitalists | distributed: viz., to the North American colonies, being employed in exporting labour. The plan 23,518; to the United States, 28,335; to Australia taued, however, because people could get land in the and New Zealand, 3476; and to other places, 1881. United States for a quarter of the price; and even The number who emigrated in 1860 was 127,969;

EMESA-EMIGRATION.

manner, any number of gradations of fineness may be obtained, according to the number and sizes of the vessels. Elutriation in oil or gum-water is sometimes used on a smaller scale, the E. being stirred up in the liquid, and portions poured off at different intervals of time, the finest being, of course, the last to settle. The use of the oil or gum is to make the subsidence take place more slowly.

E. thus prepared is used for a great many important purposes in the arts. Being next in hardness to diamond-dust and crystalline corundum, the lapidary uses it for cutting and polishing many kinds of stone. Glass-stoppers of all kinds are ground into their fittings with it. Plate-glass is ground flat by its means; it is also used in glasscutting, and in grinding some kinds of metallic fittings. When employed for the polishing of metals, it has to be spread on some kind of surface to form a sort of fine file. E. paper, E. cloth, E. sticks, E. cake, and E. stone, are various contrivances for such purposes.

E. paper is made by sifting E. over paper which has been covered with a coating of glue. It is used either by wrapping it round a fine file, or a stick, or in the hand, according to the form of the work. See POLISHING OF METALS.

E. cloth is made like E. paper, with coarse calico substituted for the paper. The E. does not adhere so well as to paper, and it is therefore not used by metal-workers, who work E. paper till smooth with wear, but is chiefly used for purposes where the hand alone is used, and paper would tear.

E. sticks are used for the same purposes as E. paper wrapped round files; they are made of deal sticks shaped like files, then glued over, and dipped once or twice in a heap of emery.

E. cake is a compound of bees-wax, suet, and E., melted and well worked together. It is applied to buffing wheels, &c.

E. stone is a kind of earthen-ware mixed with E., formed by pressing a mixture of clay and E. into suitable moulds, and then firing, like common earthen-ware. It is moulded into wheels, laps, &c. Its hardness and cutting power are very considerable. EMESA. See HEMS, or HOMS.

in wine; squill, lobelia, and, generally speaking, the whole class of expectorants and irritants; the latter of which, however, with the exception of sulphate of zinc, and perhaps mustard and water, form a dangerous kind of emetics, which should never be administered when the milder kinds can be procured.

EMETINE. See IPECACUANHA.

EMIGRATION is the passing from one part of the world to another for the purpose of permanently settling in it. People going thus from one district of the same state to another-especially if it be a distant part, with different habits and physical peculiarities-are sometimes said to emigrate, and in this way the term has been often applied to the English and Scotch settlers in Ireland. In its established signification, however, the word now refers to those who leave the state or dominions in which they have heretofore lived, and in this sense the term applies to those going to the colonies, though these are like the United Kingdom, under the authority of the British crown. In the country which people leave, they are called emigrants or wanderers out-in that in which they settle, they are usually called immigrants. Jacob and his family were immigrants to Egypt, and their descendants became emigrants from that country when they went to inherit the promised land.

The Greeks were addicted to emigration, owing, it has been said, to the many political contests which drove the weaker party from home. Greek emigrants planted colonies on the borders of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, carrying them as far northward as France, where they established the city of Marseille. The Romans were great colonisers, but by conquest rather than emigration. They disliked leaving Italy; and the military and civil officers necessary to rule a colony were generally the only Romans who abode in it. These even did not, in general, settle in the colonies with their families, but were recalled after a certain period of service, the whole arrangement much resembling that for the government of British India.

The migrations of the northern tribes who overran the Roman empire, are well known in history; their wanderings may be said, indeed, to have continued down to the 13th century. Those who wandered from the north into France, where they acquired great territories, became known as Normans, and were remarkable for entirely throwing off the language and manners, and even all the traditions of their original homes, and becoming the most civilised and courtly portion of the French people. But though thus changed, they still continued to wander, spreading over Britain, Sicily, and the intervening portions of Europe.

EMETICS, medicines given for the purpose of producing Vomiting (q. v.). They are given when it is desirable to relieve the stomach of some noxious or indigestible substance, as a narcotic poison, or excess of food, or some special article of diet which has disagreed. Emetics are also administered in cases of fever, where the copious secretion they produce from the glands of the stomach and intestines is supposed to have a directly curative effect, aided, perhaps, by the sedative action of emetics upon the circulation and nervous system. There The discovery of America opened a vast new field is a considerable amount of evidence to shew, that for emigration, which was taken immediate advanemetics have the power of cutting short typhus and tage of by the Spanish and Portuguese, and later, other fevers in the earliest stage, and afterwards of by the British, the French, the Germans, and the making the attack of the disease less severe. In Dutch. In the 17th c., many of the English Puridiseases of the respiratory organs, emetics are given tans, persecuted in, or discontented with, their own as the quickest and safest method of removing accu- country, found it more congenial to their tastes to mulated mucus from the air-passages; and in Croup live together in a new country, where they would be (q. v.), their action is especially favourable, being free from the presence of those who did not sympa. often followed by expectoration and a rapid improve- thise with them, and they thus founded the New ment in the suffocative symptoms. Emetics are to England colonies. It is singular that, in the 19th c., be given with great caution, however, in all very an attempt should be made to revive the plan of depressed states of the system, as their primary emigrating for the purpose of maintaining an excluaction is to produce Nausea (q. v.), which is attended sive church, as, for instance, in the English High always with more or less diminution of the vital Church colony of Canterbury, and the Scotch Free power, and often with great depression of the Church colony of Otago. heart's action, amounting to syncope or fainting. The emigration fields at the present day are the The principal emetics are the preparations of anti-territory still called the United States of America, mony, zinc, and copper; ipecacuanha in powder or the British colonies in America, and the volonies in

EMIGRATION.

South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. There is a great distinction to be taken between colonies fit for emigration and those dependencies of the British crown held for other purposes. India, for instance, the greatest dependency of the crown, is totally unsuited for emigration. The British people who go there, with the exception of a few merchants, go to form the civil and military staff which rules the country. They stay there no longer than they can help, and instead of living on from generation to generation, send home their children in early youth, families of British origin having a tendency to degenerate, both physically and mentally, by long residence there. It is useless for working-people to go there, as every kind of work is done in some way or other by the natives much cheaper than it could be by Europeans, and the same may be said of every colony in the hot latitudes.

As a question in political economy, opinions about emigration have oscillated violently. At one time it has been prohibited, at another encouraged by all kinds of tempting offers held out to emigrants, while teachers of political economy have proclaimed that there can never be too much emigration. The conclusion to which we are coming in this, as in so many other questions in political economy is, that what is good for the individual members of a community is good for the community collectively-if people can improve their condition by emigrating, it is as well that they should emigrate; but if other wise, they had better stay at home. It might seem unnecessary to promulgate a doctrine which every man's self-interest should teach him, but unfortunately emigration is one of the matters on which the populace have been liable to delusions which have produced great mischief. Sometimes poor workmen have crowded in where labour was superabundant and capital deficient; at others, men have taken their capital to districts where there was no employment for it, and the unnaturally high price of the necessaries of life has immediately absorbed it all. Young gentlemen, with nothing but showy accomplishments, have gone to the backwoods of America, where they could only prosper by ceaseless toil in felling and clearing. Ambitious, discontented artisans have wandered to the wide pastures of Australia, where they could only get a scanty subsistence as hut-keepers or assistant shepherds, not having skill enough to be intrusted with the charge of stock. Such mistakes have originated from people's ignorance of the fate of those who have gone before, it being generally taken for granted that the emigrant has gone away for his benefit, whereas it has often been for his ruin, and to meet an untimely death.

in Australia, where it prevailed, capitalists, instead of buying land, squatted,' as it was termed, and the government had to countenance the system, by charging them a small rent or squatting licence. There was one shape, however, in which it was found necessary for the government to interferethe protection of emigrants, so far as possible, from cruelty and imposition. Conducting emigration is a trade in which a large body of men are engaged. Before he leaves his own country, the intending emigrant, through means of agents who take up that line of business, can not only be shipped for a distant port, but can contract for his removal inland to his final place of settlement, and can even contract for the purchase of a plot of ground, or for the sale of his labour. The temptations and the opportunities for imposition in contracts to be fulfilled so far away from the place where they are undertaken, is obvious, and the instances of cruelty and rapacity exhibited in the emigration trade are among the most atrocious that have ever disgraced human nature. These led to the appointment of a department of government called the Emigration Commission, and to the passing of the Passengers' Act of 1849, which regulates the build and character of the vessels which may carry emigrants to certain points, limits the number that may be conveyed, requires the sufficiency of the provisions and other stores to be certified, and provides for proper medical attendance. The British government cannot, of course, enforce obedience to their regulations in vessels belonging to citizens of the United States, after these have gone to sea; but before allowing such vessels to receive emigrants, the owners must find security in this country for the performance of their undertakings, and to a considerable extent the American government has co-operated with ours for the protection of emigrants.

The greatest amount of emigration from any one country is from the United Kingdom. There is also a continual stream of emigration from Germany, which has formed several separate German communities in the States of America, and also in the British colonies there, and in Australia. A new kind of emigration, which has come under the charge of the British authorities, is that of hill coolies from India, and of Chinese, both for the purpose of supplying free labour in the sugar-growing and other tropical colonies where Europeans cannot work with safety. A difficulty which more or less attends all kinds of emigration is peculiarly felt in this kind-viz., that of keeping the two sexes at anything near to an equality.

The annual reports of the Emigration Commissioners afford a continued series of statistics on emiThe standard difficulty is the want of adjustment gration, especially from the United Kingdom. From of capital to labour. This is enhanced by the circum- the 21st of these, coming down to the end of the stance, that those who wish to emigrate are gener-year 1860, it appears that the total number who had ally persons feeling the pressure of poverty at home. emigrated from the United Kingdom for 46 yearsThe man, however, who goes to a place where there viz., from 1815 inclusive-was 5,046,067. Emigration is no capital to employ him with either his own received a great impulse from the commercial crisis or some other person's-is just in the position of of 1847, and the potato disease at the same period. a shipwrecked mariner cast on the shore. It has In 1845, the total number was 93,501; in 1846, it been justly remarked, that perfect emigration should was 129,851; and in 1847, it reached 258,270. The consist of a transplantation of home-society with largest number who emigrated in any one year was all its several classes and institutions, including 368,764 in 1851. The smallest number in any year capitalists employing labour, artisans of various during the last 20 was in 1843-viz., 57,210. The kinds, members of the learned professions, teachers, former (viz., the largest number) were distributed and clergymen. An ingenious plan for bringing about thus: to the North American colonies, 32,873; to such a distribution was called the Wakefield system the United States, 244,261; to the Australian coloof emigration, after the name of its inventor. The nies and New Zealand, 87,881, and to other places, foundation of the plan was a high charge for land-3749. The other number (the smallest) were thus £1 per acre, the money so advanced by capitalists distributed: viz., to the North American colonies, being employed in exporting labour. The plan 23,518; to the United States, 28,335; to Australia taued, however, because people could get land in the and New Zealand, 3476; and to other places, 1881. United States for a quarter of the price; and even The number who emigrated in 1860 was 127,969;

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