FLORIDA-FLORISTS' FLOWERS. forms the immediate seaboard from the Potomac to the Mississippi. Nay, far beyond the average of the contiguous shores in either direction, it may, almost without a metaphor, be described as amphibious. To say nothing of inlets, which carry the tide within fifty miles of every point, the interior may literally be said to teem with fresh water, here and there welling up into considerable streams from springs ranging to 250 fathoms in depth. This is more emphatically true of the south, where an immense district, known as Everglades, exhibits, as its normal condition, the ordinary phenomena of a casual inundation. Though the surface is thus better adapted to pasturage than to tillage, yet, in favourable localities, the soil, rather through the abundance of heat and moisture than from any inherent fertility, largely yields such productions as sugar, cotton, and rice. Considering that the state shares with the Bahamas the dominion of that grand highway of commerce, the Gulf Stream (q. v.), its inexhaustible growth of timber for ship-building is peculiarly valuable. Its coasts and rivers swarm with shoals of fish; while its dependent keys, periodically crusted with salt of the sun's making, furnish the means of curing them.-Florida, so called because of its exuberant vegetation, was first made known to Europeans by Ponce de Leon, who landed near St Augustine in 1512. In 1539 it was explored by Fernando de Soto. Originally, the term F. vaguely indicated among the Spaniards the eastern side of the new continent to the north of Mexico, just as the term California received a similarly loose interpretation on the western coast. Gradually, however, it came to be circumscribed by the encroachments of rival powers-its first definite boundaries being established with reference to the claims of English Georgia and French Louisiana. Even within these limits, it embraced, in addition to the F. of the present day, the maritime borders of Alabama and Mississippi. Thus fixed in position and extent, the colony was ceded to England in 1763, and recovered by Spain in 1781. In 1803, however, Louisiana having been bought by the United States from France, F. became to the former country a commercial and political necessity; and accordingly, in 1821, it was annexed to the great republic by a mixture of force and negotiation. The same physical character of F. which impairs its economical worth, has added materially to the expense of its occupation. From about 1836 to 1842, the Seminole Indians, protected by their swamps against every civilised appliance but the blood-hound, tasked the resources of the American Union more than any other domain of equal size ever tasked them. Notwithstanding every drawback, the country, possessing as it does, a comparatively salubrious climate, has made a reasonable progress in wealth and population. In 1850, 349,423 acres were under cultivation; and in 1855, the assessable capital was estimated at about 50,000,000 dollars-nearly 14,000,000 in lands, fully 27,000,000 in slaves, and more than 8,000,000 in other descriptions of property. It is only recently that railways have been introduced into Florida. A system of about 700 miles had been projected, and in 1859 there were 216 miles completed. According to the national census of 1850, the inhabitants numbered 87,401, of whom 39,309 were slaves; under local returns of 1855, the corresponding totals were 110,823 and 49,526. The national census of 1860 gave 78,686 free, and 61,753 slave; total, 140,439. greatest breadth at the southern extremity, 150 miles; at the northern extremity, 65 miles. ⚫ COUNT OF, prime minister under Charles III. of Spain, was born in 1728 at Murcia, where his father was a notary. Having studied at Salamanca, he gained soon after such distinction that he was appointed Spanish ambassador to Clement XIV. of Rome. In that office, he displayed great ability, especially in the abolition of the order of Jesuits and the election of Pius VI. Grimaldi, Spanish minister of Foreign Affairs, on being dismissed, was asked by the king to nominate a successor, and accordingly proposed Monino. Charles followed his advice, created Monino Count of Florida Blanca, and intrusted to him, besides, the department of matters of justice and mercy, as well as the superintendence of posts, highways, and public magazines. F. used this extensive authority in introducing post-coaches and good post-roads, in improving the capital, and attending to other important departments of general police, as likewise in actively promoting the arts and sciences. His effort to confirm the good understanding between Spain and Portugal by a double marriage, which would have secured the Portuguese throne to a Spanish prince, was unsuccessful. His military undertakings also, the attack upon Algiers in 1777, and the siege of Gibraltar in 1782, issued unfortu nately. Before the king's death in October 1788, F. presented a defence of his administration, with a request for leave to resign. The defence was accepted, but the request refused. However, under Charles IV. in 1792, F.'s enemies obtained his disgrace. Imprisoned at first in the citadel of Pampeluna, he was afterwards released, and banished to his estates. He appeared again at the meeting of the Cortes in 1808, but died November 20 of the FLORIDA BLANCA, DON JOSEFO MONINO, same year. FLORIDEÆ. See CERAMIACEÆ. FLORIN was the name of a gold coin first struck in Florence (q. v.) in the 13th century. It was the size of a ducat, and had on one side a lily, and on the other the head of John the Baptist. Some derive the name from the city, and others from the flower. These coins were soon imitated all over Europe. It was out of them that the German gold guldens of the middle ages and the modern guldens arose. These last are still marked by the letters Fl. The gulden or florin is the unit of account in Austria and the south of Germany. Its value in Austria is 28. English; in the other states, 1s. 8d. The name has been recently applied to the English twoshilling piece. FLORI'NIANS, a Gnostic sect of the 2d c., so called from a Roman priest, Florinus, who, with his fellow-presbyter, Blastus, introduced doctrines resembling those of Valentinus, into Rome, in the pontificate of Eleutherius (176), and was excluded from communion by that pontiff. See GNOSTICISM, VALENTINIANS. FLORISTS' FLOWERS are those kinds of flowers which have been cultivated with peculiar care, and of which, consequently, there exist nume rous varieties, differing very much in appearance from each other and from the original flower. Such are tulips, hyacinths, roses, auriculas, carnations, anemones, ranunculuses, dahlias, &c. The special cultivation of particular flowers was first prosecuted to a remarkable degree in Europe by the Dutch in FLORIDA, GULF OF, the name given to the the beginning of the 17th c., and from the Nether channel between Florida and the Bahamas, traversed lands a passion for it extended to other countries, by the Gulf Stream (q. v.). From Florida Reefs on particularly to England and Scotland, when the the south, to Settlement Point, the most northern religious persecutions drove many refugees to the of the Bahamas in the channel, is 200 miles long; | British shores; and to this day it prevails most of FLORUS-FLOURENS. all where the branches of manufacture introduced by the refugees are carried on. In the little gardens of operatives in some of the manufacturing towns may be seen many of the finest tulips and carnations in Britain. It is still, however, in Holland, and particularly at Haarlem, that this branch of gardening is carried on to the greatest extent, and it is from that quarter that the market of the world is chiefly supplied with bulbs, seeds, &c. Between Alemsei and Leyden are more than twenty acres appropriated to hyacinths alone, which succeed best in a loose sandy soil. The cultivation of roses at Noordwyll, in South Holland, is carried on in considerable fields situated in the dunes, and affords support to many families. Berlin has of late years become the seat of a flower-trade, which partially rivals that of Holland. Some flowers, as dahlias and hollyhocks, are produced in greatest perfection by British cultivators. The Chinese have had their florists' flowers, camellias, hydrangeas, tree peonies, &c., from time immemorial. In the years 1636 and 1637, an extraordinary flower-mania prevailed in Holland, chiefly with reference to tulips, in which men speculated as we have recently seen them do in railway shares. Bulbs were sold for enormous sums. For a single Semper Augustus (a tulip), 13,000 florins were once paid, and for three such together, 30,000 florins. The ownership of a bulb was often divided into shares. Men sold bulbs, which they did not possess, on condition of delivering them to the buyers within a stipulated time; and of some varieties, far more bulbs were sold than actually existed. But these extravagances soon ceased, although not till they had involved many persons in ruin.-It was not till about the year 1776 that the real flower-trade of Holland reached its greatest importance; from which time it has rather declined. New varieties of tulips and hyacinths are sometimes marked in the Haarlem catalogues at prices from 25 to 150 florins. FLO'RUS, generally, but on insufficient evidence, called L. Annæus F., was a Roman historian who flourished in the reign of Trajan or Hadrian. Of his life we know absolutely nothing. He wrote an epitome of Roman history (Epitome de Gestis Romanorum), from the foundation of the city to the time of Augustus. This work, which is still extant, is carefully and intelligently composed, but is disfigured by an inflated and metaphorical style. Since the editio princeps-if, indeed, it be suchprinted at the Sorbonne in 1471, F.'s epitome has been published times without number. The best modern edition is that of Dukerus (Lug. Bat. 1722, 1744; Leip. 1832). FLOTANT (Fr.), used in Heraldry to express that the object is flying in the air, as a bannerflotant. FLOTSAM. Wreck, in the legal acceptation of the word, is goods which, having been scattered by a shipwreck, have floated to land. From goods in the position of wreck are distinguished those known to the law of England by the uncouth expressions flotsam, jetsam, and ligan. The first is where the goods continue floating on the surface of the waves; the second is where, being cast into the sea, they sink and remain under water; the third is where they are sunk in the sea, but are tied to a cork, bladder, or buoy, in order that they may be recovered. If no owner appears to claim them, goods in these various positions go to the crown, so that by a royal grant to a man of wrecks, things flotsam, jetsam, or ligan will not pass. See JETSAM, and JETTISON, an important term in the lawmerchant, from which jetsam must be carefully distinguished. 181 FLÖTZ (Ger. level), the name given by Werner to the secondary rocks of Lehmann, because, in the district in which he examined them, they were horizontal. He arranged the rocks which form the solid crust of the earth into four classes. 1. The primitive beds without organic remains, such as granite and gneiss; 2. The transition strata, which, from their more or less metamorphic condition, were related to the primitive rocks on the one side, and from their few contained organisms, to the flötz on the other; 3. The flötz containing all the sedimentary rocks, from the coal-measures up to and including the chalk; and 4. The newer strata, which he called the overflowed land' or alluvium. When the followers of Werner found that the horizontal position of the flötz was a local accident, they abandoned the term, and restored Lehmann's title of Secondary. FLOUNDER (Platessa), a genus of fishes, of the Flatfish family (Pleuronectida), having one row of cutting teeth in each jaw, and generally pavementlike teeth on the pharynx; the dorsal and anal fins extending nearly the whole length of the body, the dorsal not coming further forward than the centre of the upper eye; the tail-fin distinctly separated both from the dorsal and the anal. To this genus belong the Plaice, Flounder, Dab, &c., of the British shores. The species generally known as the F. (P. Flesus), is very common, not only on the British shores, but on those of most parts of Europe. Its Swedish name is Flundra. Its Scottish name is Fleuk or Fluke, a name which, with additions, is extended to many other kinds of flat-fish. The F. is often a foot or more in length. Its greatest breadth, without the fins, is about one-third of the whole length, rather less than that of the plaice. It is easily distinguished from the plaice by a row of small tubercles on each side of the lateral line. The colour varies according to the ground from which the fish is taken. The F. is found chiefly in rather shallow water, with sandy or muddy bottom, and equally in the most perfectly salt water and in the brackish water of estuaries. It ascends still rivers into perfectly fresh water, and may be kept in freshwater ponds. It lives long out of water, and is easily transferred to ponds.-The F., like the other fishes of this genus, generally swims on the left side, and has the eyes on the right side; but reversed specimens are of frequent occurrence. FLOUR is a popular name given to the finer portions of meal or pulverised grain. Thus, flour, or wheat flour, is the fine part of ground wheat; pea-flour, of pease, &c. See BREAD. FLOUR, ST, a small town of France, in the department of Cantal, is finely situated on a steep basaltic plateau at an elevation of 3000 feet, 34 miles east-north-east of Aurillac. It is entirely built of Its streets are narrow, and its lava and basalt. houses in general have a miserable, dark, and dirty appearance. The principal building is the cathedral. A suburb lies at the foot of the rock, and communicates with the town by a winding road cut in the rock. F. has manufactures of hollow ironware, cloth, and table-linen. Pop. 5660. FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE, a celebrated living French physiologist, born in 1794 at Maureilhan, Hérault. After having obtained his. degree of Doctor of Medicine at Montpellier, at the early age of 19, he proceeded to Paris, where he soon became acquainted with the Cuviers, Geoffroy St Hilaire, and other eminent naturalists. For the last forty years, F. has been a voluminous writer on human and comparative anatomy and physiology, on natural history, and on various special departments of the history of the natural and physical sciences 385 FLOURENS FLOWER. Among his most important works we may mention his Recherches Expérimentales sur les Propriétés et les Fonctions du Système Nerveux dans les Animaux Vertèbres (1824); with a supplementary volume, entitled Expériences sur le Système Nerveux (1825); Recherches sur le Développement des Os et des Dents (1842); Anatomie Générale de la Peau et des Membranes Muqueuses (1843)-a work tending to demonstrate the unity of the human race, by shewing that there are no essential differences between the structure of the skin in the negro and the European-and his Théorie Expérimentale de la Formation des Os (1847), perhaps the most celebrated of his works. Among his smaller and popular works, are his Analyse Raisonnée des Travaux de Georges Cuvier (1841); Buffon, Histoire de ses Idées et de ses Travaux (1844); De l'Instinct et de l'Intelligence des Animaux (1841); Examen de la Phrénologie (1842); Histoire de la Découverte de la Circulation du Sang (1854); De la Longévité Humaine, et de la Quantité de Vie sur le Globe (1854); and his Eloges Historiques-a beautifully written series of scientific biographies. As early as 1821, F. delivered a course of lectures on "The Physiological Theory of Sensations,' and presented some of his first scientific contributions to the Academy of Sciences, into which body he was admitted as a member in 1828. About this date, he was appointed assistant to Cuvier; and in 1832, he succeeded to the full duties of the professorship of natural history in the Jardin du Roi. In 1833, he succeeded Dulong as Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences-an office which he still continues to discharge; and in 1840, the French Academy elected him a member. He was made a peer of France by Louis Philippe in 1846, and was appointed professor in the College de France in 1855. He is unquestionably the most popular French scientific writer of the present day. FLOWER, or BLOSSOM, that part of a phanerogamous plant in which the organs of reproduction (stamens and pistils) are situated, and which consists essentially of a single group of these, generally surrounded by floral envelopes (the calyx and corolla). Both the organs of reproduction and the floral envelopes are metamorphosed leaves, and arise in successive whorls from a much shortened axis, called the thalamus (Gr. a nuptial-bed), or torus (Lat. a couch). Flowers are sometimes closely attached to the stem or branch from which they grow, and are then said to be sessile (Lat. sitting); but sometimes there intervenes a flower-stalk or peduncle, either simple or branched. The whole assemblage of flowers of a plant is called its Inflorescence (q. v.), and the different kinds of inflorescence, or modes in which the flowers are produced and grouped, are often as characteristic as the diversities in the flowers themselves, although the latter are in general more important with reference to botanical affinities. In the very large natural order Composite, many small flowers are congregated on a common receptacle, and surrounded with bracts in the form of an involucre, as a single flower is surrounded by its calyx. The head of flowers is in this case popularly called a flower; and the individual flowers of which it is composed are by botanists styled forets. This term is also applied to the individual flowers in the spikelets of the Grasses (q. v.), of which the glumes are a common involucre. The order of the whorls in flowers is invariable; the Calyx (q. v.) is always exterior to the Corolla (q. v.); within the corolla are the_Stamens (q. v.), or male organs of reproduction, and in the centre of all is the Pistil (q. v.), the female organ of reproduction. An outer calyx, or whorl of metamorphosed leaves, exterior to the calyx, and usually smaller, is found in some flowers, as mallows, and is called the epicalyx. Within the corolla, there is sometimes an additional or supplementary corolla, called the Corona (q. v.), coronet, or crown. When the 3 Illustration of some of the Principal Parts of a Flower (from Balfour's Botany): 1, Section of the flower of Ranunculus, shewing sepals, petals, numerous stamens, with adnate anthers, placed below the carpels. 2, Anatropal seed of Aconite, cut vertically, shewing abundant homogeneous albumen and a small embryo, 3, Diagram of the flower of Ranunculus, with five sepals, five petals, numerous stamens, and carpels. 4, Ripe follicle of Columbine. 5, Ripe achene of Ranunculus. 6, Numerous single seeded carpels of Ranunculus. 7, Spurred petal of Columbine. calyx and corolla are not easily distinguishable, the term Perianth (q. v.), or perigone, is employed, as in the lily, crocus, iris, and the greater number of endogenous plants, although even in these there are really two whorls closely united. In some flowers, there are several whorls of leaves forming one or each of the floral envelopes; and in like manner, some have several whorls of stamens, and sometimes there are several whorls of the carpels which form the pistil. In some flowers, certain whorls are entirely wanting; and thus not a few exogenous plants are destitute of the corolla, which is sometimes the case with plants-exceptional apetalous species-very nearly allied to others that have it. It is by a similar abortion of a whorl that flowers become unisexual. Both stamens and pistils are generally present in the same flower, which is called a hermaphrodite or perfect flower; but many flowers contain only the male organs of reproduction, and many contain only the female organs, and such flowers are described as unisexual, Diclinous (q. v.), or imperfect; and respectively, as male or staminifer ous, and female or pistilliferous flowers. Male flowers are also called barren or sterile, and female flowers fertile, although their fertility depends on the communication of pollen from the staminiferous flowers. When both male and female flowers are produced on one plant, the species is said to be monœcious (Gr., having one house); but when they are on separate plants, it is diacious (Gr., having two houses); those which produce male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are called polygamous. Some times both stamens and pistils are wanting, and the flower is then said to be neuter or empty, as in the case of the florets of the ray in many composite flowers. Sometimes, on the contrary, both calyx and corolla are wanting, and then the flower is said to be naked or achlamydeous (Gr., without covering), as flowers having only one floral envelope are called monochlamydeous, and flowers having both calyx and corolla are called dichlamydeous. Achlamydeona flowers are often grouped in some peculiar mannet, and protected by bracts or by a spathe. FLOWER Flowers are always regular in their rudimental state-whorls of elevated points or papilla; some of these, however, are not unfrequently abortive, whilst more frequently, some acquire a greater development than others of the same whorl, making the whorl and the flower irregular; and greater varieties of form are common in the metamorphosed leaves which compose the flower, than in true leaves themselves. The internodes, or portions of the axis between the whorls, are sometimes also peculiarly developed into Disc (q. v.), Gynophore (q. v.), &c. The different whorls often differ in their Estivation (q. v.). But a beautiful symmetry may generally be traced in the arrangement of the parts of flowers, the whorls consisting of the same number of parts, and the parts of each whorl being placed opposite to the spaces of the whorl exterior to it; and this symmetrical plan of the flower remains manifest even when there is abortion or extraordinary development of particular parts. The number of parts in the pistil is, however, often smaller than in the exterior whorls; and sometimes particular parts appear to be divided, and so apparently multiplied, as the long stamens of the Cruciferæ, each pair of which is to be regarded as one stamen split into two, and has its place accordingly among the parts of the flower. The symmetry of flowers may be illustrated by the following diagrams: a Illustration of the Symmetry of Flowers (from Balfour's Botany): a, Diagram of the flower of leath (Erica), having four sepals, four divisions of the corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four divisions of the pistil. The flower is tetramerous, complete, symmetrical, and regular. b, Diagramatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of Stone-crop (Sedum). consisting of five sepals externally, five petals alternating with the sepals, ten stamens in two rows, and five carpels containing seeds. The lines on the outside of the carpels are glands. c, Diagram of the trimerous symmetrical flower of Iris. There are three alternating divisions of each whorl. d, Diagram of the flower of Flax (Linum), consisting of five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and five car els, each of which is partially divided into two. It is pentamerous, complete, symmetrical, and regular. The development of flowers in most cases follows the complete formation of the stem-leaves, more rarely precedes or accompanies it. The unfolding of the parts of a flower is called its flowering or blossoming, and when their functions are performed, it fades; the floral envelopes, the stamens, and even the styles, sometimes falling off early, and some of them sometimes remaining in a withered state until the ripening of the fruit; the calyx not unfrequently undergoing such modifications as to convert it into part of the fruit itself. In the greater number of plants, flowering takes place, during the flowering season, indiscriminately, it all hours of the day; and the flowers once opened, remain open, even during night, till they fade. In many plants, however, a sleep of flowers takes place; they open and close with the returns of day and night. Thus, sunflowers open in the morning, and close at evening; whilst there are other flowers which open in the evening, and close in the morning. Others also open and close at certain hours of the day; thus the flowers of the common purslane open about 11 o'clock A. M., and close soon after midday; Anthericum pomeridianum opens its flowers about 2 P. M., and closes them before night; the large fragrant blossoms of Cereus grandiflorus open between 7 and 8 P. M., and its sleep commences soon after midnight. In a few plants, the sleeping and waking of the flowers are regulated by the conditions of the weather. The waking and sleeping of flowers either continues for several days in succession, as in some species of Mesembryanthemum; or the brief life of the flower ends when it first sleeps, as in the Tiger-flower. The odours of flowers, extremely various, often delightful, and sometimes very offensive, are in some cases equally powerful as long as the flower is open; in others, they vary in strength at different times of the day. Some flowers, as those of Hesperis tristis and Pelargonium triste, although remaining open during the day, diffuse their fragrance only when night comes on. The Oriental Hyacinth, so commonly cultivated in windows, is at all times perceptibly fragrant, but fills the atmosphere of the apartment with its perfume about eleven o'clock at night. The colours of the different parts of flowers, the variety and beauty of which render many of them so attractive, generally remain unchanged, but sometimes undergo changes during the life of the flower. The flowers of Myosotis versicolor-a small species of Forget-me-not, very common as a weed in gardensare sulphur-yellow when they first open, and afterwards change to blue. The petals of Cheiranthus mutabilis, when they first expand, are yellow, and afterwards pass to orange, red, and finally purple. In Hydrangea hortensis, familiar as a window-plant, the flowers are at first green, then rose-colour, purplish red intermixed with green, and finally, when about to fade, they are of a sickly green. Some flowers undergo remarkable changes of colour during the day, as those of the common pink Phlox, which, early in the morning, are light blue, and become bright pink as the day advances; and those of Hibiscus variabilis, which are white in the morning, pink at noon, and bright red at sunset. The colours and odours of flowers are subjects in the investigation of which physiologists have not yet been able to go far. The chemical products on which they immediately depend are partially known; but how the chemical changes are wrought, and what various purposes they all serve as to the plant itself, can scarcely be said to have even begun to be ascertained. Both colours and odours are more or less owing to the action of the sun's rays. They are also sometimes modified by soil; and diversities of colour have been obtained in cultivated flowers by changing the soil in which they grow. A few flowers are edible, although none are of any importance on this account. Some, or parts of them, are used in dyeing; but notwithstanding the beauty and variety of the colours of flowers, a very small proportion of vegetable dye-stuffs is obtained from them; and a similar remark is applicable to their medicinal use. For dyeing and painting, the colours of flowers can seldom be obtained in considerable quantity, except at too great expense, and seldom of brilliancy at all corresponding with that which they exhibit in the flower itself. They are also in general FLOWER-DE-LUCE-FLOWERS. fixel with great difficulty, some yellow colours being the only notable exceptions. Flowers being subservient to the reproduction of the species, are, in all not unfavourable circumstances, followed by Fruit (q. v.). This, of course, in moncecious and dioecious plants, is the case only with the female flowers, the male flowers soon withering away when they have dispersed their pollen. See FECUNDATION and STAMEN. But even after the fecundation of the germen, and when, in the language of gardeners, the fruit is set, unfavourable circumstances, such as excessive heat or cold, drought or moisture, want of due nutriment to the plant, or through excessive number of fruits set at once, to the individual fruit itself-often cause it to fall off early, long before it has attained its full size. See FRUIT. FLOWER-DE-LUCE. See IRIS. FLOWER-POTS are generally made of burnt clay, unglazed, tapering a little towards the bottom, and having the bottom perforated with one or more holes. Those of smallest size (thumb-pots) are only about two inches deep, and are used chiefly for seedlings to be soon again transplanted. For plants which require a pot of more than 12 inches deep and 18 inches wide, wooden boxes or tubs are generally provided. The flower-pot is usually placed in a saucer of the same material, when used in apartments or on the shelves of a green-house; but when plants growing in flower-pots are placed in the garden, the saucer is dispensed with. For ornamental use, flower-pots are sometimes glazed, or made in the shape of vases, &c.-In filling flowerpots, small stones or bits of broken pottery are placed in the bottom, to prevent water from lodging there, and souring the soil in which the plant is to grow. The roots of plants growing in pots are generally examined once or twice a year, by turning them out of the pot with the whole ball of earth attached, when the roots, which have often become matted round the outside of the ball of earth, are pruned, and the plant is either restored to the same pot or transferred to a larger one. The change of soil made at this time is, according to circumstances, either complete or partial. FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. This elegant branch of manufacture, though not usually ranked among the fine arts, may be fairly regarded as holding an intermediate place between them and the mechanical arts. The Italians were the first to bring it to a high state of perfection, and it is now successfully carried out both in England and France. The value of artificial flowers annually exported from France exceeds £40,000. 1 The materials used are very various. Feathers have long been used by the South American Indians. In Italy, the cocoons of silk-worms are dyed, and extensively used. Beautiful imitations of flowers are made from shells, either in their natural colours or tinted. Paper, ribbons, velvet, thin laminæ of whalebone, &c., are also used. The materials of which the artificial flowers commonly in use are made are French cambric, Scotch cambric, jaconet, and fine calico, besides muslin, crape, and gauze for particular flowers, and satin and velvet for thick petals, &c. Wax-flower-making is quite a distinct branch, and those who follow it claim with justice the title of artist. It will be treated under the head of WAX-FLOWERS. The petals and sepals of the flowers, as well as the leaves of the plant, are stamped out by punches, or irons,' as they are technically termed. A large stock of these irons is necessary, as special forms and sizes are required for each flower. The next process in shaping is that of 'goffering,' or 'gauffer ing,' by means of which the hollow form is given to petals, and the midrib and veins of leaves imitated. For hollowing petals, the goffering-iron is simply a polished iron ball mounted on an iron wire in a handle. It is slightly warmed, and the petal is placed on a cushion, and the iron pressed against it. A variety of other forms of gofferingirons are used, such as prismatic rods, bent wires, &c. The venation of leaves is effected by dies made of iron or copper, which are nevertheless called goffering-irons. The tinting of petals of the best flowers requires some amount of delicacy and skill. In nature, however, the tint of each petal of a flower is rarely uniform; and the best artificial flowers represent the natural variations with great accuracy. The petals of a rose, for example, are dyed by holding each separately by pincers, and then dipping it in a bath of carmine, and afterwards into pure water, to give delicacy of tint; but as the colour is usually deepest in the centre, a little more dye is added there while the petal is still moist, and this diffuses itself outwards in diminishing intensity. The whiteness at the insertion of the petal is produced by touching that part with pure water after the rest is dyed. Leaves are cut and stamped in like manner from green taffeta, cambric, calico, &c. The glossy upper surface is represented by coating the taffeta, &c., from which they are stamped, with gum-arabic and the soft tone of the under side is obtained by means of starch coloured to the requisite shade, and brushed on when of the right consistence to dry with the proper effect. A velvety texture is given by dusting the powdered nap of cloth, which has been previously dyed of the required colour, over the gummed leaf, the gum having been allowed to partly dry till it has become tacey.' The superfluous portion of nap is then shaken off. Buds are made of taffeta, tinted, and stiffened, and stuffed with cotton. Stamens are made of short pieces of sewing silk stiffened with gelatine, and when dry, the ends are moistened with gum, and dipped in flour, coloured yellow, to repre sent the pollen. Fine wire is sometimes used for the filament of the stamen. The flower is built up from the centre; the pistil and stamens are tied in a bunch to a piece of wire; the petals are arranged in order, and pasted; then the sepals of the calyx are pasted outside of these, and further secured by winding fine thread or silk round the lower parts. Other wires are enclosed with this thread, and form the stalk, which is bound round with green tissue paper; and at proper intervals the leaves are inserted by means of fine wires, to which they are bound, the ends of these wires being bound in and incorporated with the stalk, and concealed by the green paper. Besides the flowers copied from nature, there is a considerable demand for what are called 'fancy flowers,' most of which are invented by the manufacturer to use up waste and spoiled fragments originally designed for better purposes. Flowers suitable for mourning are prepared by coating leaves, flowers, &c., with strong gum, and then dusting upon them powdered galena. This substance, a sulphuret of lead, is formed naturally in lustrous cubic crystals of a dark-gray colour, and however finely it is powdered, the fragments still tend to retain the same shape and surface, and thus present a number of flat glittering facets. It is used in like manner for cheap jewellery. FLOWERS, in Chemistry, is term originally given by the alchemists to the sublimates which rose, or appeared to grow from certain bodies capable of undergoing volatilisation when subjected to heat. |