being to the North American colonies, 9786; to the United States, 87,000; to Australia and New Zealand, 24,302; and to other places, 6881. Again, taking the parts of the empire whence they came, we find that there were-from England, 103,001; from Scotland, 3872; and from Ireland, 21,596: the returns, however, only apply to the port of embarkation, not the place where the emigrant may have been born or lived. Of the total, 71,507 were entered as male, and 55,929 as female, while of 1033, the sex was not distinguished.

EMIGRATION OF PAUPERS. The manifest advantages derivable both to themselves and the community which supports them from the emigration of paupers, and more particularly of pauper children, to the colonies, have led to several legislative provisions on the subject. The object of these enactments is, on the one hand, to facilitate pauper emigration, and, on the other, to prevent it from being pressed on paupers by the guardians to the extent of interfering with their personal freedom of choice. By 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 76, s. 62, parishes in England and Wales are empowered to raise funds by a yearly rate for defraying the expenses of poor persons willing to emigrate. The sums advanced may be recovered from any person above the age of 21, who (or whose family or any part thereof), having consented to emigrate, shall refuse to do so, or who having emigrated, shall return. 11 and 12 Vict. c. 110, empowers the guardians of a parish to promote the voluntary emigration of the poor having settlements therein, in accordance with the provisions of the statute above cited, and to charge the expenses upon the ordinary funds for the relief of the poor. By 12 and 13 Vict. c. 103, s. 20, guardians are empowered to expend a sum not exceeding £10 for each person, on the emigration of paupers having settlements in their union or parish, without a previous vestry meeting. 13 and 14 Vict. c. 101, s. 4, enacts that it shall be lawful for the guardians of any parish or union to expend money in the emigration of any poor orphan or deserted child under the age of 16 years, having no settlement, or the place of whose settlement is unknown, and to charge the expense so incurred to the same parish to which such orphan or deserted child was chargeable at the time of the emigration. The section concludes with the provision, that no emigration of any such orphan or deserted child, under any of the above-mentioned powers, shall take place until such orphan or deserted child shall have consented thereto before the justices assembled in petty sessions, and a certificate of such consent, under the hands of two of the justices present thereat, shall have been transmitted to the Poor-law Board.

These statutory provisions do not apply to Scotland, and there are no corresponding clauses in the Scottish acts. The emigration of paupers in Scotland, if effected at all, must be the result of a private arrangement between the parish and the emigration commissioner, or other person willing to contract for their passage-the consent of the pauper being, of course, requisite. The directors of ragged schools have frequently directed their attention to the subject, but they have invariably been withheld from trying the experiment of sending the children to the colonies, partly by the want of funds, and partly by the want of arrangements for their reception when they arrived.

ÉMIGRÉS, the name given more especially to those persons who quitted France during the Revolution. After the insurrection at Paris, and the taking of the Bastile, 14th July 1789, the princes of the royal family departed from France. They were followed, after the adoption of the constitution of

fiscated.

1791, by all who considered themselves aggrieved by the destruction of their privileges, or who were exposed to persecution. Nobles quitted their châteaus; officers, with whole companies, passed the frontiers. Crowds of priests and monks fled to escape the oath of allegiance to the constitution. Belgium, Piedmont, Holland, Switzerland, and, above all, Germany, were overrun with fugitives of every age. Only a few had been able to save their property; the greater portion were in a state of destitution, and sank into utter demoralisation. lenz; a government, with ministers and a court of A court had formed itself round the princes at Cobjustice, had been established, and communication able to the Revolution. This conduct imbittered was kept up with all the foreign courts unfavourFrance, aggravated the position of the king, and drove the revolutionary party forward in their sanguinary career. Under the command of the Prince of Condé, a body of émigrés was formed, which followed the Prussian army into Champagne. The result was that the severest laws were now put in force against the émigrés. Their lands were conagainst any one who should support or enter into The penalty of death was proclaimed communication with them. Thirty thousand perexiled for ever from the soil of France, although sons were placed upon the list of émigrés, and many of them had refused to bear arms against their country. Not until after the failure of their attempt to land at Quiberon in 1795, did the emigrés abandon all thoughts of penetrating into France by force of arms. Condé's corps, after the peace of Luneville, was obliged formally to dissolve, and sought an asylum in Russia. Even under the obtain permission to return to France. The general Directory, however, many had endeavoured to fore joyfully hailed by the greater portion of the amnesty proclaimed by the First Consul was thereémigrés. Many, however, did not return home till after the downfall of Napoleon. Dignities, pensions, and offices were now showered upon these faithful adherents; but, according to the charter of 1814, they were unable to recover either their estates or their privileges. Finally, on the motion of the minister Villèle, the émigrés who had lost their landed estates, by the law of the 27th April 1825, received a compensation of 30 million francs the July revolution, however, the grant was withyearly on the capital of 1000 million francs. After toire des Emigrés Français (3 vols., Paris, 1823), and Compare Antoine de Saint-Gervais, HisMontrol, Histoire de l'Emigration (2d edit., Paris, 1825).

drawn.

EMILIAN (or EMILIAN) PROVINCES, a name now employed to designate a portion of the recently formed kingdom of Italy, comprising the northern part of the States of the Church (the Romagna), and the duchies of Parma and Modena. The name is derived from the ancient Via Emilia (a continuation of the Via Flaminia, or great northern road), which passed through these territories. The E. P. were formally annexed to Sardinia in April 1860. See ITALY.

E'MINENCE, a title given to cardinals by Urban VIII. Up to the period of his pontificate, they The assumption by the Roman Catholic clergy of had been called Most Illustrious and Most Reverend. this and other ecclesiastical titles, not having reference to any pretended province, or to any pretended see or diocese,' are not struck at by the Act 14 and 15 Vict. c. 49, to prevent the assumption of certain ecclesiastical titles in respect of places in the United Kingdom. See ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ASSUMPTION ACT.

EMIR, an Arabic word, equivalent to 'ruler,' is a title given in the East, and in the North of Africa, to all independent chieftains, and also to all the actual or supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima. The latter are very numerous throughout the Turkish dominions, but although entitled by birth to be classed among the first four orders of society, they enjoy no particular privileges or consideration; on the contrary, they are found engaged in all sorts of occupations, and are to be met with among beggars, and the lowest of the populace, as frequently as among the mollahs. Their privileges are contined to a few unimportant matters, chiefly to the exclusive right to wear turbans of a green colour, that having been the favourite colour of the Prophet. They are placed under the supervision of the Emir-Beshir. In former times, the title of Emir was borne by the leaders in the religious wars of the Mohammedans, as well as by several ruling families, such as the Thaherides and Samanides in Persia, the Tulunides in Egypt, the first seven Ommaiades in Spain. The title Emir, in connection with other words, likewise designates different offices. Emir-al-Mumenin, Prince of the Faithful,' is the title assumed by the califs themselves; Emiral-Muslemin, signifying the same thing, was the title of the Almoravides. Emir-al-Omrah, Prince of Princes,' was the title of the first minister, under the califs and the East Indian Moguls, who united in his own person the highest civil and military dignities. It is now the title of the governors of different provinces. The Turkish master of the horse is styled Emir-Achor; the standard-bearer, Emir-Alem; the surveyor of markets in Turkey, Emir-Bazaar; and the leader of the caravans of pilgrims to Mecca, Emir-Hadji.

6

E'MLY, an ancient Irish see, united to Cashel in

1568.

EMME NAGOGUES, medicines intended to restore, or to bring on for the first time, the menstrual excretion in women. The emmenagogues chiefly in use are the preparations of aloes, iron, myrrh, and other stimulants in connection with purgatives; and also the local use of the warm bath, leeches, fomentation, &c. Some recommend still more powerful and direct applications to the uterine mucous membrane; as galvanic pessaries, lunar caustic, scarifications, &c.; but these are not in general use. See MENSTRUATION.

ances, according_as one or other predominates. Wonder, Anger, Fear, Affection, are emotions; the Acts that we perform to procure pleasurable feel ings, and avoid painful, are volitions, or exercises of Will; Memory and Reasoning are processes of Thought, or Intellect.

Emotion is essentially a condition of the waking, conscious mind. When asleep, or in a faint, or in any of those states called 'being unconscious,' we have no emotion; to say that we have would be a contradiction, which shews that 'emotion' is a very wide and comprehensive word. In fact, whenever we are mentally excited' anyhow,' we may be said to be under emotion. Our active movements and intellectual processes can sometimes go on with very little consciousness; we may walk and scarcely be aware of it; trains of thought may be proved to have passed through the mind while we are unconscious of them. Now, it is these unconscious modes of Volition and Intellect that present the greatest contrast to emotion; shewing how nearly co-extensive this word is with mental wakefulness, or consciousness, in its widest signification.

Emotion, then, is of the very essence of mind, although not expressing the whole of mind. There are three distinct kinds or divisions of it: Pleasures, Pains, and Excitement that is neither pleasurable nor painful.

Every kind of Pleasure is included under emotion in its widest acceptation. The pleasures of the Senses are as much of an emotional character as those pleasures that are not of the senses-as, for example, those of Power, Pride, Affection, Malevolence, Knowledge, Fine Art, &c. Every one of our senses may be made to yield pleasurable emotion; and all those other susceptibilities, sometimes called the special emotions, of which a classification is given below, are connected with our pleasures or our pains. What pleasure is in its inmost nature, each one must find from his own experience; it is an ultimate fact of the human consciousness which cannot be resolved into anything more fundamental, although, as will be seen, we can lay down the laws that connect it with the other manifestations of mind-namely, action and thought, and with the facts of our corporeal life.

In the next place, Pain is a species of emotion. We know this condition as being the opposite of Pleasure, as the source of activity directed to its removal or abatement, and as the cause of a peculiar outward appearance, known as the Expression or Physiognomy of Pain. All the inlets of pleasure are also inlets of pain. The various sensibilities of the mind, whether the outward senses, or the more inward emotions, give rise at one time to pleasure, at other times to pain, the conditions of each being generally well understood by us; we can define the agencies that cause pleasure or suffering through the skin, the ear, or the eye.

EMOTION. This is the name for one of the comprehensive departments of the human mind. It is now usual to make a threefold division of the mind--Emotion, or Feeling; Volition, or Action prompted by Feelings; and Intellect, or Thought. It is not meant that these can be manifested in absolute separation; or that we can be at one time all emotion, another time all volition, and again all thought, without either of the other two. But although our living mind is usually a concurrence, in greater or less degree, of all of them, still they can be distinguished as presenting very different appear

But it is requisite, further, to recognise certain the compass of emotion. We are very often roused, shocked, excited, or made mentally alive, when we can hardly say that we are either pleased or put to pain. The mind is awakened and engrossed with some one thing, other things are excluded; and the particular cause of the excitement is impressed upon us so as to be afterwards remembered, while all the time we are removed alike from enjoyment and from suffering. This is a kind of emotion that has its principal value in the sphere of intellect. The emotion of Wonder or Astonishment is not seldom of this nature; for although we sometimes derive pleasure, and sometimes the opposite, from a shock of surprise, we are very frequently affected in neither way, being simply impressed. The strange

appearance of comet gives far more of this neutral effect than of the others. It is a thing that possesses our mind at the time, and is afterwards vividly remembered by us, and these are the chief consequences of its having roused our wonder. The Physical Accompaniments of emotion are a part of its nature. It has been remarked in all ages, that every strong passion has a certain outward expression or embodiment, which is the token of its presence to the beholder. The child soon learns to interpret the signs of feeling. Joy, Grief, Affection, Fear, Rage, Wonder, have each a characteristic expression; and painters, sculptors, and poets, have adopted the demeanour of passion as a subject for their art. There must be some deep connection in the human frame between the inward states of consciousness and the physical or corporeal activities, to produce results so uniform throughout the human race. When we study the facts closely, we obtain decisive proof of the concurrence of the following members and organs in the manifestation of feeling.

In the first place, the muscles or moving organs are affected. Under strong excitement, the whole body is animated to gesticulation; in less powerful feelings, the expression confines itself more to the features or the movements of the face. These last have been analysed by Sir Charles Bell. The face has three centres of movement-the Mouth, Eyes, and Nose; the mouth being most susceptible, and therefore the most expressive feature. In the Eyes, expression is constituted by the two opposite movements of the eyebrows; the one raising and arching them (prompted by a muscle of the scalp, occipitofrontalis), the other corrugating and wrinkling them. The one movement is associated with pleasing states, the other with painful. The Nose is acted on by several muscles, the most considerable of which is one that raises the wing together with the upper lip, and is brought into play under the disgust of a bad smell and in expressing dislike generally. The Mouth is principally made up of one ring-like muscle (orbicularis), from which nine pairs radiate to the cheeks and face. In pleasing emotions, the mouth is drawn out by the action of two pairs of muscles, named the buccinator and zygomatic, situated in the cheek. The expression of pain is determined by the contraction of the aperture of the mouth, through the relaxation of those muscles, and the contraction of the ring-like muscle that constitutes the flesh of the lips; and by two muscles in the chin, one depressing the angle of the mouth, and the other raising the middle of the lower lip, as in pouting. Besides the features, the Voice is instinctively affected under strong feelings; the shouts of hilarious excitement, the cry of sharp pain, and the moan of protracted agony, are universally known. Another important muscle of expression is the Diaphragm, or midriff, a large muscle dividing the chest from the abdomen, and regularly operating in expiration. In laughter, this muscle is affected to convulsion.

In the second place, the organic functions of the system are decidedly influenced for good or evil under emotion. The glandular and other organs acted on in this way comprehend the most important viscera of the body. The Lachrymal Secretion is specifically affected under passion; the flow of tears being accelerated to a rush, instead of pursuing the tranquil course of keeping the eyeball moist and clean. The states of the Sexual Organs are connected with the strongest feelings of the mind, being both the cause and the effect of mental excitement. The Digestion is greatly subject to the feelings, being promoted by joy and hilarity, not in too great excess, and arrested and disturbed under pain, grief, |

terror, anger, and intense bodily or mental occupa tion. The Skin is known to respond to the condition of the mind; the cold sweat in fear is a derangement of its healthy functions. The Respiration may be quickened or depressed according to the feelings. The action of the Heart and the Circulation of the Blood are subject to the same causes. The nature of this influence was explained under BLUSHING. Lastly, in women, the Lacteal Secretion participates in the states of emotion, being abundant, healthy, and a source of pleasure in a tranquil condition of mind, while grief and strong passions change it to a deleterious quality.

The connection between mental emotion and bodily states being thus a fact confirmed by the universal experience of mankind, can we explain this connection upon any general law or principle of the human constitution? Have we any clue to the mysterious selection of some actions as expressing pleasure, and others as expressing pain? The reply is, that there is one principle or clue that unravels much of the complexity of this subject-namely, that states of pleasure are usually accompanied with an increase in some or all of the vital functions, and states of pain with a depression or weakening of vital functions. This position may be maintained on a very wide induction of facts, many of them very generally recognised, and others open to any careful observer; there being, however, some appearances of an opposite kind, which have to be satisfactorily accounted for, before we can consider it as fully established.

If we consider first the respective agents or causes of pleasure and pain, we must acknowledge that they are very generally of a nature to accord with the view now stated. How many of the sources of pleasure are obviously sources of increased energy of some vital organs. The case of Food is too obvious to need any comment. Warmth within limits both confers pleasure and stimulates the skin, the digestion, and other functions. Fresh air exhilarates the mind, while quickening the respiratory function. Light is believed to stimulate the vital actions no less than the mental tone. And if there be some pleasures of sense, such as mere sweetness of taste, fragrant odours, music, &c., that do not obviously involve greater energy of vital function, they might be seen to do so, if we knew more than we do respecting the operation of the various organs, and we are certain that they do not have the opposite effect. Medical authorities are so much impressed with the general tendency of pleasures, that they include them in the list of stimulants in cases of low vitality. If we pass from the senses to the special emotions, such as Wonder, Power, Tender Affection, Taste, we find that when those are pleasing, they also increase the animal forces at some point or other. A stroke of victory sends a thrill through the whole system; and if the pulse were examined at that moment, we should find that it beats stronger. The illustration for Pains is exactly parallel, but still more striking. It is notorious that hurts, wounds, fatigue, ill-health, hunger, chillness, nauseous tastes and odours, the silence of a prison, the gloom of utter darkness, failure, humiliation, contumely, deprivation of one's usual comforts and pleasures-while causing pain, cause in a corresponding degree a depression of the powers of the system. There are some apparent exceptions, as in the stimulus of the whip, the bracing agency of cold, and the effect of misery generally in rousing men from lethargy to action, but these could all be shewn to be quite compatible with the main principle.

If we turn from the agents to the expression, or modes of manifestation, of the opposing nental conditions, we shall find that the facts are of tat same

general tenor, although with some seeming exceptions. Joy makes a man spontaneously active, erect, animated, and energetic. It is as if a flush of power were diffused through his members; and the efforts he is then prompted to, lead to no painful exhaustion. The opening up of the features, by the elevation of the eyebrows and the retraction of the mouth, indicates that the stream of energy has coursed over the face. In a still greater shock, the convulsiveness of laughter, by which respiration is quickened, attests the superabundance of the animal spirits. The body stands more erect, and every act done is done with more emphasis. Grief and depression are the opposite in every particular. The frame is languid and stooping, the features lifeless, the voice is a feeble wail; and although there is a species of convulsion attending on this condition of mind, it is a marked contrast to the other. The sob is caused by the partial paralysis of the diaphragm, which necessitates great voluntary efforts in order that breathing may proceed. The choking sensation at the throat is also a species of paralysis from loss of vital power. The convulsions arising under such circumstances are productive of an exhausting reaction, which is the case with all the energetic movements stimulated by extreme pain.

Such is undoubtedly the general fact. But why should pain stimulate, or give strength to, some special muscles, such as the corrugator of the eyebrow, and the depressor of the angle of the mouth? This has appeared a great difficulty to the ablest physiologists. It would look as if pleasure coincided with an energetic wave sent to some muscles, and pain with an energetic wave sent to others; so that the opposite conditions of mind are equally accompanied by an accession of power to some bodily member. But if we examine the matter inore narrowly, it will probably turn out that the muscles that seem to be stimulated under pain, are not so in reality, but obtain the upper hand through the general relaxation of the system. Thus, take the mouth. We know the state of the mouth in languor, inaction, and sleep. We know that when we are roused in any way, the muscles of the face operate and draw the mouth asunder in a variety of forms. Pleasure corresponds with our energetic moods, pain causes a collapse towards the sleepy and exhausted condition which represents a state of departed energy. So the collapse of the body might seem an exertion of the flexor muscles, or those that bend the frame forward; but we are well aware that such collapse takes place when the system is totally lifeless. A renewed energy, as a matter of course, makes us stand erect.

This is a part of the case in reply to the objections arising from a specific expression of pain, but not the whole; and the answer to the difficulties still remaining is furnished by a fact that, if well authenticated, will probably dispose of nearly all the exceptions to the general principle now contended for. It is the organic functions, more than the muscular system, whose increased vitality coincides with pleasurable feeling, and their diminished action with pain. Muscular exercise is often highly agreeable, but the pleasure of resting after exercise is still more so. Now, there can be little doubt that what happens in the state of healthy repose is this: the amount of vital force stimulated by exercise the increased energy derived from plying the lungs and heart-is now allowed to leave the active members, and to pass to the other organs-the digestion, skin, and various secreting glands-and it is their aggrandisement that is associated with the comfortable sensations of repose and sinking into sleep. Thus, the abating of muscular energy may be a cause of pleasure, provided the organic func

tions are raised in consequence; but it may be maintained as a highly probable supposition, that a certain health and energy of some or all of these functions (it is difficult to draw a specific line) is essential to pleasurable feeling. We may doubt whether even mental causes can materially raise the tone of enjoyment, if they do not also raise the activity of some of these organs. Not only may a person be very happy and comfortable in the pros tration of the muscular energy, even in a sick-bed, but one way of procuring comfort is to induce a total inaction of the moving members, to allow all the available nervous power to pass to the viscera and secretions. Hence a forced relaxation of the muscles generally, by the employment of some of them, is a means of soothing the mind under pain. Thus, the active intervention of certain small muscles-such as the corrugator of the eyebrows, the orbicular muscle of the mouth, and the depressor of the angle of the mouth-by relaxing a much greater body of muscle, is the means of setting free vital energy for behoof of the other parts of the system. This would explain the mental relief furnished by an assumed sadness of feature, and a voluntary collapse of the body generally.

It would appear, then, that the stimulus of muscle is not necessarily or immediately a cause of pleasure; while the stimulus of the organic functions is so. Thus, a bracing cold quickens the activities, but is apt to cause a shock of pain, by temporarily checking the action of the skin; when the reaction arrives, this check is converted into stimulation, and the mental state is altered in like manner. bitter tonic must be supposed to act on the same principle.

Α

The emotions of the human mind may be classi fied under two heads :

First-The pleasures, and pains, and modes of excitement growing out of the exercise of the Senses, the Movements, and the Appetites. See SENSES. The five senses, commonly recognised, are partly sources of pleasure and pain, in which case they yield Emotion, and partly sources of Knowledge, by which they are related to the Intellect. There are other sensibilities not included in the five senses, but ranking with them in those particulars-as the feelings of Muscular Exercise and Repose, and the sensations of Digestion, Respiration, &c.

The second head comprises the Special Emotions not arising immediately out of Sensation, although connected therewith. These have been variously classified. The following is one mode of laying them out: 1. Feelings of Liberty and Restraint; 2. Wonder; 3. Terror; 4. Tender Affections; 5. Emotions of Self-complacency, Love of Approbation, &c.; 6. Sentiment of Power; 7. Irascibility; 8. Emotions of Action, including the interest of Pursuit or Plot; 9. Emotions of Intellect, Love of Knowledge, Consistency, and Inconsistency; 10. Fine Art Emotions, or Taste; 11. The Moral Sense.

On this subject, see Müller's Physiology, Movements due to the Passions of the Mind; Bell's Anatomy of Expression; Stewart on the Active Powers; Bain on the Emotions and the Will, &c.

EMPA'NNEL-Empanellare vel ponere in assisis et juratis-to write in a schedule or roll the names of such jurors as the sheriff returns to pass upon any trial. The judges of assize in England, before commencing their circuits, issue precepts to the sheriffs of the several counties, calling upon them to summon a sufficient number of jurors to serve upon the grand and petty juries. with this order, the sheriff prepares lists, called the In compliance Panels (q. v.) of the jury, and the persons named in the lists are thereupon summoned to attend at the assizes.