molecules of matter, or of the groups of atoms (see ATOMIC THEORY) of which the molecule of a compound body is built up, together with their atmospheres. Electricity, magnetism, &c., are explained to be rotations in the atmospheres. Redtenbacher and Clausius are not quite agreed as to the physical forces corresponding to each of these forms of motion, but the above sketch will give a general idea of the nature of their speculations.

But the most startling of all the reflections on force, and its ultimate nature, which have perhaps ever been made, are those of Faraday. Without calling in question in ordinary cases the truth of the conservation of energy, he has endeavoured, by experiment (the only genuine test in a question so novel and so profound), to prove what may be called the Conservation of Force, if we understand force itself, and not energy. He argues thus: two masses, according to the undisputed law of gravitation, attract with four times their mutual force if their distance be diminished to half; and with only onefourth of the same, if their distance be doubled. He asks whence comes the additional force in the former, and what becomes of the lost force in the latter case?

Now, it is evident that this is a new question, totally distinct from any we have yet considered. To answer it, we must know what force is. Would gravitation have any existence if there were but one particle of matter in the universe, or does it suddenly come into existence when a second particle appears? Is it an attribute of matter, or is it due to something between the particles of matter? Faraday has tried several experiments of an exceedingly delicate kind, in order to get at some answer to his question. A slight sketch of one of them must suffice. A poundweight is not so heavy at the ceiling of a room as it is when on the floor; for, in the former case, it is more distant from the mass of the earth than in the latter. The difference for a height of 30 feet is (roughly) about 50.000th of a pound. Now, if a mass of metal be dropped through such a space, an additional force, 5th of its weight, is called into play, and the object of the experiment was to detect whether electrical effects accompanied this apparent creation of force. The mass, therefore, was a long copper wire, whose coils were insulated (see ELECTRICITY) from each other, and whose extremities were connected with those of the coil of a delicate Galvanometer (q. v.). Had any trace of an electric current been produced, the needle of the galvanometer would have been deflected, but, when all disturbing causes were avoided, no such deflection was detected. Other experiments with a view to the detection of other physical forces, were also tried, but, like the first, with negative results only. We must not, however, conclude that such can never be found, as this would be assuming the absolute truth, in all cases, of the conservation of energy, which is no doubt thoroughly borne out by experiment in many cases, but not even approximately in others; while even in the former class more delicate instrumental means may enable us to trace small but most important deviations from absolute exactness; and it is to the results of such trials that we must look for further information as to the nature of force, and the generality of the law of conservation of energy. There are, in mechanics, several other quantities which retain a fixed value under certain circumstances. We may briefly consider a few of them.

Conservation of Areas. Invariable Plane.-We have seen (CENTRAL FORCES) that if a particle move about a centre of force, its motion is confined to a plane, and its radius vector traces out equal areas in equal times. Similar theorems hold in any system of particles acted on only by their

mutual attractions. If in such a system we suppose the positions of the respective particles to be continually projected (orthogonally, see PROJECTION) on any fixed plane, and radii vectores to be drawn from any point in that plane to the projections-the sum of the areas swept out by all those radii vectores will be equal in equal times. Also, this being true of all planes, there is one for which this sum is a maximum, and this plane is fixed in space. It is thence called the invariable plane of the system. Similar propositions hold for a system of bodies each of finite size, their several axial rotations being taken into account; hence what is called the Invariable Plane (q. v.) of the Solar System.

Conservation of Momentum.-When two masses attract or impinge, the forces they exert on each other are evidently equal and opposite. Now, the measure of a force is the momentum it produces; hence equal and opposite momenta, in addition to their original quantities, will be communicated to the masses, and therefore the sum of the momenta of the two, resolved in any direction, will be unaltered; hence, the sum of the momenta of any number of bodies will be unaltered by mutual actions either of the nature of attraction or impact.

Conservation of the Motion of the Centre of Gravity. Again, in such a system, the momentum of the centre of gravity of the whole in any assigned direction is the sum of the momenta of the separate bodies in that direction; hence, the centre of gravity of a system, subject to none but the mutual actions of its components, either remains at rest, or moves uniformly in a straight line.

FORCE AND FEAR.

As consent is of the

essence, or rather is the essence of all contracts, and as consent implies not only intelligence, but unfettered power of action in the consenting parties, contracts, by the laws of all civilised nations, will be invalidated if it shall be proved that they were entered into under the influence of force or fear. Circumstances which constrain the will have the same effect as those which blind the understanding, and the law of force and fear is consequently closely analogous to that of Fraud (q. v.), including under that head misrepresentation, concealment, and consequent Error (q. v.). But it is not every degree of constraint, however exercised, which will have this effect in law. On the contrary, it must be of such a description as may be reasonably supposed to influence the will of the party in the circumstances in which he is placed at the time. In determining, therefore, whether there really has been force or fear in the legal sense, the law will take into account the age, sex, education, and other personal characteristics of the party, along with the accidental circumstances in which he was placed, e. g., the state of his health and spirits at the time, whether he was alone, what anxiety he may have felt for the life or interest of others, and the like. But where there is no peculiar weakness of age or sex, or condition,' says Mr Bell, stating in this respect not the law of Scotland alone, but of most other countries, 'law will require, in order to annul a contract, such fear and compulsion as may reasonably shake a mind of ordinary constancy and resolution, and will not listen to the pretence of every vain and foolish fear.'-Com. i. p. 22, Shaw's ed. As a contract which is invalid on the ground of force and fear is not only incapable of being enforced after its invalidity has been ascertained by legal process, but from the absence of consent was invalid ab initio-i. e., no contract, in a legal sense, at all-the object of the law is to restore the parties to the position in which they were before it was entered into. All moneys which have been paid under the provisions of the extorted contract must

consequently be repaid, and reparation in as far as possible must be made by the payment of damages for such personal injuries as the party who was dragged into it may have suffered from the enforcement of its provisions. See REDUCTION. By the law of England, Duress (q. v.) which will invalidate a contract must amount to fear of the loss of life or limb (Mayhem, q. v.). Whatever is done by a man to save either life or member,' says Blackstone, is looked upon as done upon the highest necessity and compulsion. Therefore, if a man, through fear of death or mayhem, is prevailed upon to execute a deed, or do any other legal act, these, though accompanied with all other the requisite solemnities, may be afterwards avoided.' But a fear of battery or being beaten, though never so well grounded, is no duress; neither is the fear of having one's house burned, or one's goods taken away and destroyed, because in these cases, should the threat be performed, a man may have satisfaction by recovering equivalent damages.'-Stephen's Com. i. p. 142. The avoidance of such a contract is, however, dependent on the will of the injured party. 'A contract made under duress may be avoided by the person whose free-will was thus restrained, though he has also an election, if he thinks proper, to insist upon it as a binding transaction' (Ib. vol. ii. p. 62). But the parties who are entitled to treat a contract either as a nullity or a subsisting contract, must make their election, and cannot, after treating the contract as rescinded, set it up as a subsisting contract (Addison on Contracts, pp. 273, 436, and 1074).

FORCELLINI, EGIDIO, an Italian philologist of great attainments, was born on the 26th of August 1688, in a village near Padua. Owing to the limited means of his family, F. was deprived of the benefit of early instruction, and was already verging towards manhood when enabled to commence a regular course of study in the seminary at Padua. His zealous industry, combined with unusual powers of learning, singled him out from his companions, and won the admiration of the learned principal, Giacomo Facciolati, who even associated him with some of his own scientific labours. The pupil rendered his teacher valuable service in the compilat on of a highly important lexicon, a work which probably inspired both with the project on which F.'s literary repute is based-viz., the compilation of a vast and comprehensive vocabulary of the Latin language. The work was published after F.'s death, and pronounced by public voice as one of the most valuable acquisitions to philological science of the age. In addition to the Italian and Greek signification of the Latin word, the literal and figurative application of each expression is given in a collection of examples, in themselves a perfect compendium of knowledge, embracing the customs, laws, arts, sciences, religion, and history of the Romans. This immense work was published in 4 vols., folio, under the title, Totius Latinitatis Lexicon, consilio et cura Jac. Facciolati, opera et studio Aeg. Forcellini Lucubratum (Padua, 1771). Furlanetto's appendix appeared in 1816 (Padua), and a new edition of the complete work was published in 1828 (Padua). F. died in 1768.

FORCENÉ, said, in Heraldry, of a horse wheu rearing, or standing on his hinder legs.

FORCEPS (Lat. a pair of tongs or pincers), the name given by surgeons to an instrument of great antiquity, used as a substitute for the fingers, and consisting of two levers of metal jointed together rosswise, nearer to one end than the other. The hand grasping the longer ends of the levers or handles, closes the shorter ends, which are shaped

so as to seize firmly the intended object. There is scarcely a surgical operation in which it is not applied; and it is made of various forms, to suit different cases. In addition to the forms used in Dentistry (q. v.), there is, e. g., the dissecting forceps, which has roughened points, to lay hold of small portions of tissue which are to be divided by the knife; the lithotomy forceps, again, has blades concave like spoons; and fenestrated forceps have apertures in the blades, and as the soft tissues project into these, a firm hold is obtained with less risk of tearing the parts. By means of Liston's cutting forceps, a powerful hand can divide a great thickness of bone. But the most important of all is the midwifery forceps, an invaluable invention, in cases of difficult delivery, which daily rescues from suffering and danger numerous mothers and infants. It was gradually brought to its present perfection; but the name of Chamberlen, an accoucheur of the time of James II., is associated with it, as one of its chief improvers. It consists of two concave fenestrated blades, forming a cavity into which the head of the child fits. The blades are applied separately, one to each side of the head, and then locked together. Holding by the handles, the accoucheur aids the natural efforts of labour. The instrument does not necessarily or generally injure either mother or child.

cation of heat to accelerate vegetation. The term FORCING, in Gardening, is the artificial appliis not usually applied to the cultivation of exotic plants in hothouses, where the object is to imitate as much as possible their native climate; but it is strictly applicable to the system usually pursued with vines and pine-apples, to secure the production of fruit at desired seasons, and by different plants of the same kind in succession through a considerable period, the heat being increased for one set of plants sooner than for another. Many of the fruits and vegetables which grow well in the open air, are very commonly forced, in order that they may be procured at seasons when they could not without artificial means. Thus, sea-kale and rhubarb are forced by means of the heat produced by heaps of fermenting litter, by which at the same time they are blanched, and to this we owe their appearance in the market very early in the season. Potatoes, pease, kidney-beans, asparagus, salads, &c., are often forced by means of hotbeds, or in flued pits; or a place is found for them in hothouses. Strawberries are cultivated in pots, and forced in hothouses; and some kinds of fruittrees are often treated in the same way, particularly cherries; and very diminutive trees may be seen richly loaded with fruit. Certain varieties are regarded by gardeners as particularly suitable for forcing. The system pursued in the Orchard-house (q. v.) cannot be called forcing.

FORD, FORDING. When a river or rivu let is crossed without the aid of either a bridge or ferry, it is said to be forded, and an established place for this crossing is called a ford. Thus, we have Oxford, Stratford, Deptford, Hungerford, &c., towns built around ancient fords. To the military engineer and the traveller in wild countries, the selection of the safest place for fording a river is a matter of some practical importance. In the first place, the widest part of the river should be chosen, as, wherever a certain quantity of water is flowing, the wider its bed-the rapidity of the flow being the same-the shallower it must be. At the bend of a river, the line of shallow water does not run straight across, but extends from a promontory on one side to the nearest promontory on the other. The stream usually runs deep along

hollow curves, and beneath steep perpendicular an overhanging banks, whilst it is always shoal in front of promontories, unless the promontory is formed by a jutting rock. For safe fording on foot, the depth of water should not exceed three feet; on horseback, four feet; or a foot less for each, if the current be very strong. The bottom of a ford should be firm and even; weeds, blocks of stone, &c., are serious obstacles, especially for cattle. When a caravan, a number of troops, or of cattle, have to cross, a sandy bottom is very bad, for the sand is stirred up and carried away by the stream, and renders the ford impracticable for the hindmost. For a small party, hard sand or gravel is the safest bottom.

The inhabitants of a district generally know the safest fords, and their experience affords a better guide than the best rules that can be given. Fords are contically varying, either from the swelling of the river or the shifting of its bed or banks, and therefore it does not follow that the place set down by one traveller as a safe ford, will continue so for the next that succeeds him.

FORD, JOHN, an English dramatist, was the second son of Thomas Ford of Ilsington, in the county of Devon. The date of his birth is not known, but he was baptized in Ilsington Church, 17th April 1586. His family was connected with the famous Lord Chief Justice Popham, and he became a member of the Middle Temple in November 1602; his cousin, a John Ford also, at the same period being a member of Gray's Inn. Unlike many members of the poetic tribe, F. seems to have adhered to his studies, and to have attained some

professional success. His first poem was an elegy on the death of the Earl of Devonshire, entitled Fame's Memorial, and subsequently he assisted in the composition of various plays; perhaps, from his conjunction with Webster and Decker, in this way he acquired, or at least whetted, his appetite for tragic horrors. In 1629, he produced The Lover's Melancholy; and four years after, The Broken Heart, and Love's Sacrifice. Next year came Perkin Warbeck; and in 1638-1639, The Fancies Chaste and Noble, and The Lady's Trial. After this, F. drops out of literary history. Some think that he died soon after; others, that he retired to his native place, married, and lived to an old age, with sons and daughters growing up around him.

F. takes high position as a dramatist, and this position he attains more by general mental force than by dramatic instinct, or by what we are accustomed to call poetic genius. In his compositions, there is a sense of effort; his writing looks like taskwork; and one can hardly suppose that he enjoyed his work. His versification-even when the subjectmatter is distinctly noble-is hard and prosaic. He has no humour. He has been praised for his pathos, but in his pathetic scenes effort is apparent. He cannot flatter' you to tears, as Shakspeare and the greater poets do. An edition of his works, published by Edward Moxon of London (1840), is enriched by a biographical notice and critical estimate from the pen of Hartley Coleridge.

FORDUN, JOHN OF. Nothing more is certainly known of this early Scottish chronicler, than that he was a secular priest, and wrote about the year 1380. It has been inferred from his name that he was born at Fordun, in Kincardineshire, and it has been said that he was a canon of the cathedral church of Aberdeen. Having proposed to himself the compilation of a chronicle of Scotland, he is said to have travelled on foot through Britain and Ireland in search of materials. He lived to write only five books of his Scotichronicon, bringing the

history down to the death of King David I. in 1153. He left collections extending to the year 1385, about which time he is supposed to have died. The work which John of F. had left unfinished was resumed in the year 1441 by Walter Bower, abbot of the monastery of Austin Canons Regular, at Inch Colm, or St Colm's Inch, in the Firth of Forth. He enlarged the five books which F. had completed, and making use of his collections so far as they went, wrote eleven new books, bringing the Scotichronicon down to the murder of King James I. in 1437. The dearth of other annals has given more importance to the work than it could claim from its literary merits, which are scanty enough. It has been printed more than once, the most complete edition being Walter Goodall's, published at Edinburgh in 1759, in two folios. This includes both F. and Bower. The best edition of F.'s work, as it was left by himself, is Thomas Hearne's, published at Oxford in 1722. There is room for a new edition, which should give a collation of the best manuscripts, and distinguish what is F.'s own, what he copied from others, and what Bower interpolated into his text.

FORE (i. e., first), a term applied to the front or foremost part of a ship. The forehold is that part of the hold intervening between the cutwater and the foremast. The forecastle is that portion of the upper deck extending from the foremast to the bow; it is the part to which the common sailors have free access, and probably derives its name from a small turret or castle placed near the prow in ancient vessels, from which darts and other projec tiles could be most conveniently hurled upon an enemy. Foremast is the first of the three masts, or of the two, when only that number are present. It is surmounted by the foretop-mast, foretopgallantmast, and foreroyal; its sails being foresail, foretopsail, &c.; between it and the bow flies the forestaysail, hoisted on the forestay, a massive rope passing from the foretop to the bow, and, with the backstays and shrouds, maintaining the mast in a perpendicular position. The forebraces are ropes passing from the extremities of the foreyard into the maintop, whence they descend through pulleys to the deck, where they serve, when necessary, to alter the direction presented by the foresail to the wind.

FORECLOSURE, in English Law, the process by which a mortgagor failing to repay the money lent on the security of an estate, is compelled to forfeit his right to redeem the estate. Every person having mortgaged his estate, is entitled to an equity of redemption, which can only be cut off by a formal process. For this purpose, the mortgagor files a bill of foreclosure, praying that an account may be taken of the principal and interest due under the mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on failing to pay, may forfeit his equity of redemption. If on the day fixed for payment, the money be not forthcoming, the mortgagor will be declared to have forfeited his equity of redemption, and the mortgagee will be allowed to retain the estate in perpetuity. See, MORTGAGE.

FOREHAND RENT. In Scotch Law, rent is said to be forehand when it is made payable before the crop, of which it is the rent, has been reaped. After the period when it is due and exigible, forehand rent is in bonis of the lessor, and passes to his executor, not his heirs (Bell's Law Dictionary).

FOREIGN ATTACHMENT may have refer ence either to person or property. A defendant who has been arrested or attached in a foreign country, may be again arrested in England on the same ground of action. Thus, where a defendant had been arrested abroad on an English judgment, and

a foreign judgment, and a plea of a foreign judgment in bar of a fresh suit for the same cause. As the effect to be given to a foreign judgment is altogether a matter of comity, in cases where it has not been regulated by positive treaty, and no sovereign is bound to execute within his own dominions a sentence given out of it, the rule adopted, where a suit is brought to enforce a foreign judgment, is that the foreign judgment is to be received, in the first instance, as primâ facie evidence of the debt, but that the defendant is entitled to impeach the justice of it, or to shew that it was irregularly and unduly obtained. But the case is different where the losing party comes forward and wishes to institute a new suit upon the same matter, and to open up a foreign judgment dismissing the action, pronounced by a competent court. In this case, to interfere with the foreign judgment would be to assume the attitude of a court of review, and the rule in England, consequently, is that such a decision, when given by a foreign court, is final and conclusive. So obvious, indeed, is the convenience and necessity of this rule, that it has been regarded as forming a portion of general jurisprudence.'-Kent's Com. ii. 101, 102. As regards the enforcement of foreign decrees and judgments, the usages of nations have differed considerably, and the subject is far too wide and too difficult to admit of being satisfactorily discussed in this work. The distinction between the recognition of the judgment of a foreign court, as determining the validity of a foreign contract, and the application of a foreign remedy by the courts of this country, has been pointed out under Foreign Bill of Exchange (q. v.). For practical purposes, however, it may be convenient that we should state that, contrary to the popular belief in England, the French courts are in the habit of giving effect to judgments obtained in England, and that debtors cannot escape from their creditors, as is too generally supposed, by simply crossing the Channel. The difficulty, no doubt, still exists where the debtor has escaped before any proceedings could be taken against him in this country, and where no judgment can be obtained. But if he has once been served with process in England, or cited either edictally or otherwise in Scotland, the creditor may go on with his action against him though he be personally absent from the country, and ultimately enforce his decree against him by the interposition of a French court. The same observations apply to Belgium. In England, there is no regular office, as in Scotland, for the publication of citations to persons abroad (see EDICTAL CITATION), but leave to substitute service at the last place of abode, in place of personal service, may now be obtained in some cases from the courts, or leave may be granted to serve out of the jurisdiction. In most countries, the rule as to two foreigners resident but not domiciled is, that they may sue each other in the ordinary courts, as natives do. To this the French courts are an exception, and hold themselves incompetent to entertain suits between undomiciled foreigners relating to personality, except in matters of commerce (Phillimore, International Law, iv. 645). See JURISDICTION; DOMICILE; INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE; CONFLICT OF LAWS, &c.

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT. In the law of England, there is a statutory prohibition of enlistment in the service of a foreign prince in 3 Jac. I. c. 4, s. 18; but the statute commonly known as the Foreign Enlistment Act is 59 Geo. III. c. 69. It provides that if any natural-born Englishman shall enter into the service of any foreign state, either as a soldier or a sailor, without

the British dominions hire or attempt to hire any person to enlist in the service of a foreign state, such person shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. The officers of the customs, on information on oath, may detain any vessel having persons on board destined for unlicensed foreign service. Masters of vessels, knowingly having such persons on board, are subjected in a penalty of £50 for each individual. Persons fitting out any vessel for foreign service, without licence, are guilty of a high misdemeanour, and the ship and stores are forfeited. Even to assist a foreign state with warlike stores, without licence, is a misdemeanour punishable with fine and imprisonment. These penalties are irre spective of any consequences that may follow to the individual for having committed a breach of international law.

FOREIGNER. See ALIEN.

FO'RELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two promon tories on the east coast of Kent, between which are the Downs and Goodwin Sands. North F., the Cantium of Ptolemy, forms the north-east angle of the county and of Thanet Isle, in lat. 51° 22′ N., and long. 1° 26' E., two miles east of Margate. It consists of chalky cliffs, nearly 200 feet high, projecting into the North Sea, and has a light-house with a fixed light, 184 feet high, and seen 24 miles off. South F., also composed of chalk-cliffs, is 16 miles south of North F., 3 miles north-east of Dover, in lat. 51° 8' N., and 1 22 E. It has two fixed lights, respectively 380 and 275 feet above the sea, and seen from a distance of 25 and 22 miles. From this point, there is often a magnificent view of 200 to 300 merchantmen passing by, after having been detained by contrary winds in the Downs.

FORELOCK is a flat wedge driven through the end of a bolt to prevent its withdrawal: it is used principally on board ship.

FORESHORTENING, a term in Painting or Drawing, applied to signify that a figure, or a portion of a figure, which is intended to be viewed by the spectator directly or nearly in front, is so represented as to convey the notion of its being projected forward; and, though by mere comparative measurement occupying a much smaller space on the surface, yet to give the same idea of length or size as if it had been projected laterally. In compositions of figures and groups on ceilings, and in the interior of domes, &c., numerous examples will be found in which this art has been put in practice; in the works of Raphael, foreshortening is prac tised with most judgment and correctness; those of M. Angelo, Correggio, and Tintoretto display the greatest boldness; but the three last-named artists have been censured for introducing foreshortening too frequently into their compositions, for the purpose of parading their skill in practising it.

FOREST FLY (Hippobosca equina), an insect of the order Diptera. It receives the name F. F. from its frequent occurrence in forests, and particularly in the New Forest, Hampshire. It is also sometimes called HORSE FLY, from the annoyance which it gives to horses. It is a small insect, about four lines long; its wings, two in number, much exceed ing the length of the abdomen. When at rest, the wings are laid flat on the back, one overlapping the other. The general colour is brown, the thorax varied with pale yellow, the legs ringed with yellow and brown. The legs terminate in hooked claws. The skin is leathery and remarkably tough, so that the insect cannot be killed by any ordinary amount of squeezing. The structure of the mouth hiffers much from that of ordinary dipterous insect &, and