FORMS OF PROCEDURE-FORSTER. Prince's Wife, though of inferior rank, like a Princess by birth. Privy Councillor 'The Right Honourable John Privy Councillor's Wife and Children have no title. | QUEEN-The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty.' 'Madam,' and 'Your Majesty ;' or, 'The Lord John R- - presents his duty to your Majesty.' Viscount The Right Honourable Lord Viscount ,' or less formally, 'The Lord Viscount.' 'My Lord,' and Your Lordship.' Viscountess The Right Honourable the Viscountess,' or less formally, 'The Viscountess.' 'Madam,' and Your Ladyship.' Viscount's Daughter, like Baron's Daughter (q. v.). Viscount's Son, like Baron's Son (q. v.). Viscount's Son's Wife, like Baron's Son's Wife (q. v.). The formality of these modes of address experiences considerable modifications when employed by persons of equal rank. Between friends and relatives, they are either entirely dispensed with to the feelings and caprices of the writers. In this, (except, of course, in addressing letters), or adapted as in many other respects, we of the present generation are far less ceremonious than our fathers, and still more than our grandfathers were. In most old letters, it will be found that the titles of the writers Le preserved even where there is the freest and most familiar interchange of thought and feeling wives, children their parents, and occasionally even parents their children, as 'Sir' or Madam,' 'My Lord,' or 'Your Royal Highness,' as the case may be. Wives address their husbands, and husbands their FORMS OF PROCEDURE. See PROCESS. FORNICATION (fornicatio, from fornix, an arch-vault, and by metonymy, a brothel, because brothels at Rome were in cellars and vaults under ground). In most countries, this crime has been brought within the pale of positive law at some period of their history, and prohibited by the imposition of penalties more or less severe; but it has always been found ultimately to be more expedient to trust to the restraints which public opinion impose on it in every community which is guided by the principles of morality and religion. In England, in 1650, during the ascendency of the Puritan party, the repeated act of keeping a brothel or committing fornication was made felony without benefit of clergy on a second conviction. At the Restoration, when the crime of hypocrisy seemed for a time to be the only one which, under the influences of a very natural reaction, men were willing to recognise, this enactment was not renewed; and though notorious and open lewdness, when carried to the extent of exciting public scandal, continued, as it had been before, an indictable offence at common law, the mere act of fornication itself was abandoned to the feeble coercion of the spiritual court, according to the rules of the canon law, a law which has treated the offence of incontinence with a great deal of tenderness and lenity, owing perhaps to the constrained celibacy of its first compilers.'-Blackstone. The proceedings of the spiritual court were regulated by 27 Geo. III. c. 44, which enacts that the suit must be instituted within eight months, and that it cannot be maintained at all after the marriage of the parties offending. But proceedings in the ecclesiastical courts for this offence have now fallen into entire desuetude (Stephen's Com. iv. 347). In Scotland, shortly after the Reformation, fornication was prohibited by what Baron Hume calls an anxious statute of James VI' (1567 c. 13), entitled Anent the Filthie Vice of Fornication, and Punishment of the samin.' This act, which was passed in the same parliament by which incest and adultery are punished with death, provides that the offender, whether male or female, shall pay for the first offence a fine of £40 Scots, and shall stand bareheaded, and fastened at the market-place, for the space of two hours; for the second, shall pay a fine of 100 merks, have the head shaven, anu shall be exposed in the same public manner; and for the third, pay a fine of £100, be thrice ducked in the foulest pool of the parish, and be banished the town or parish for ever. There is but one instance of this statute having been enforced by the Court of Justi ciary, which occurs, as might be supposed, during the government of the Protector in Scotland. The offence of keeping a house of notorious ill-fame and scandalising the neighbourhood, is punishable in Scotland as a police offence. See NUISANCE, MORAL, and PROSTITUTION. FORRES, a royal burgh in the county of Elgin or Moray, situated on a well-marked old sea-terrace and promontory, distant about two miles from the David I. (1124-1153), and was subsequently the mouth of the river Findhorn (q. v.). Pop. (1861) 3508. It was a royal burgh in the reign of King seat of the Archdeacon of Moray, who had as his prebend the church of Forres, dedicated to St Lau rence the martyr, and the church of Logynfythenach (now Edinkillie), dedicated to St John the Baptist. the gridiron on which he is said to have been A. painting of St Laurence holding in his hand The antiquities of the place are the remains of roasted, is preserved at Brodie House near Forres. its castle, at the west end of the town, now surmounted by a monument, erected to the memory of Dr Thomson (a native of Cromarty, distinguished by his eminent medical services in the Crimean war), and the remarkable sculptured pillar-25 feet commonly the Stan'in' Stane,' which stands about high-sometimes called Sueno's Stone, but more a mile to the eastward. A monastery of black friars is said to have stood formerly on the site now occupied by Anderson's or the Forres Academical Institution. F. lies at the foot of a curiously formed group of four gravelly hills, named the Čluny or of which, the site of an old encampment, an octagonal Cleeny Hills, evidently water-made, on the highest tower 66 feet high, was erected to the memory of Nelson in 1806. FORSTER, JOHN, an English political and historical writer, was born at Newcastle in 1812. He was educated for the bar, but early, like so many other law-students, devoted himself to periodical writing. In this sphere of literature he displayed more than usual ability; and his political articles in the London Examiner, for which he commenced writing in 1834, attracted more attention than is usually bestowed on newspaper leaders. There was a vigour and point about them, coupled with a truth, consistency, and outspoken honesty (the three latter qualities being more rare in newspaper writers a quarter of a century ago than they are now), which obtained a wide renown for the paper. F. became editor of the Examiner in 1846, an office which he still discharges. He is the author of many admirable biographical and historical essays, and we are indebted to him for much new and valuable information tending to elucidate obscure points, and correct erroneous notions about the times and statesmen of the English Commonwealth. It is to this period of history that F. has chiefly directed his studies, and no person desirous of properly understanding it, should neglect his History of the Grand Remonstrance, Arrest of the Five Members, and Lives of the Statesmen of the FORSTER-FORT AUGUSTUS. Commmeh His literary memoirs are also excel- Mayence. After Mayence was taken by the French lent, and his most elaborate effort in this way, The Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith, is a charming piece of biography. F.'s style is clear, forcible, and elegant. He was appointed Secretary to the Commissioners in Lunacy in 1856; and in 1861, a Commissioner in Lunacy. FORSTER, JOHANN REINHOLD, a German traveller and naturalist, was born in Dirschau, in Prussia, in 1729, and died at Halle in 1798. He was educated at Halle and Danzig for the clerical profession, and in 1753 became pastor at Nassenhuben, near Danzig; but he seems to have devoted most of his time to the study of mathematics, natural philosophy, natural history, and geography. In 1765, he accepted an offer made to him by the Russian government, to inspect and report upon the new colonies founded on the banks of the Volga; and the matter of his report is said to have been so good as to have given to the Empress Catharine suggestions for her great code of laws. His irritable temper soon involved him in difficulties with the Russian government; and in the following year he repaired to England, where the exertions of some of his scientific friends in London soon procured for him the office of teacher of natural history, and of the French and German languages, at an educational institution for dissenting clergymen at Warrington, in Lancashire. He retained this post until 1772, when he received, through the influence of Mr Banks, the offer of naturalist to Captain Cook's second expedition to the South Seas. In the course of the voyage, his temper seems to have frequently brought him into unpleasant collision with the other officers; and after the return of Captain Cook's vessels in July 1774, a controversy arose between F. and Lord Sandwich on the question as to who should write the narrative of the voyage. It was finally settled that F. should write the philosophical, and Cook the nautical parts of the work; but further difficulties arose, and Cook's journal appeared alone. In 1776, in association with his son, he published a work (in Latin) on the botany of the expedition; and in 1778 his Observations faites dans un Voyage autour du Monde sur la Géographie Physique, l'Histoire Naturelle, et la Philosophie Morale appeared. In the latter year, he returned to Germany, and was soon afterwards made Professor of Natural History and Mineralogy at Halle, where he remained until his death. In addition to the works mentioned, he published De Bysso Antiquorum, 1775; Zoologia Indica, 1781; Geschichte der Entdeckungen und Schifffahrten im Norden, 1784 (translated into English and French), &c. FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM, commonly known as George F., eldest son of Johann Reinhold Forster (q. v.), a German traveller and naturalist, was born at Nassenhuben, near Danzig, in 1754, and died at Paris in 1794. When only 17 years of age, he accompanied his father in Captain Cook's second voyage; and shortly after his return, he published, with the assistance of his father, an account of the expedition. His book, which does not differ materially in its facts from Cook's narrative, was well received by the public, and was translated into French, German, Swedish, and other languages. Humboldt speaks of this work and of its author, my celebrated teacher and friend, George Forster,' in the highest terms in the Cosmos (see vol. ii. p. 437, Bohn's ed.). F. having returned to the continent, was made Professor of Natural History at Cassel, and afterwards at Wilna. Having there no access to books, in 1788 he gladly accepted the office of librarian to the Elector of He then in 1792, F., who had become an ardent republican, was sent as a deputy to Paris, to request the incor poration of Mayence with the French_republic, While he was in Paris on this mission, the Prussians retook Mayence, and F. lost all his property, including his books and manuscripts. writes to a friend: 'If I could only scrape together overland to India to gather new experience;' but £400, I would learn Persian and Arabic, and go about this time he seems to have been suffering from rheumatic gout, which gradually increased in severity, and which terminated his life on the 12th and the account of Captain Cook's voyage, his Besides numerous translations, of January 1794. most important works are Kleine Schriften, ein Beitrag zur Landes- und Völkerkunde, Naturgeschichte und Philosophie des Leben (6 vols., Berlin, 1789-1797), and Ansichten vom Niederrhein, vom Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England, und Frankreich (3 vols., Berlin, 1791-1794). His widow, the daughter of Heine, but perhaps more widely known Letters, in 2 vols., in 1828-1829; and a complete as Therese Huber, published a collection of his edition of his works, in 9 vols., was published by his daughter and Gervinus, in 1843. FORSTER, THOMAS IGNATIUS MARIA, an English meteorologist and physicist, born in London in 1789, and died in 1850. In 1812, he entered the university of Cambridge; in the following year, he produced an annotated edition of Aratus, and in 1816 he edited an edition of Catullus. In 1817, he published Observations on the Influence of Particular States of the Atmosphere on Human Health and Diseases; in 1824, The Perennial Calendar; in 1827, The Pocket Encyclopædia of Natural Phenomena, a work which has elicited the commendation of Quetelet and Humboldt; in 1836, Observations sur Influence des Comètes; and in 1850, Annales d'un Physicien Voyageur. A work entitled Epistolarium Forsterianum, consisting of a collection of original letters from eminent men, preserved in the Forster family, was published after his death, at Brussels, in 1852. FORT, a term of peculiar meaning in British North America, applied to a trading-post in the wilderness with reference to its indispensable defences, however slight, against the surrounding barbarism. It has thus been often employed to designate merely a palisaded log-hut, the central oasis of civilisation in a desert larger, it may be, than Scotland. FORT, FORTRESS (from Lat. fortis, strong), a stronghold, made secure by walls, and generally further protected by a ditch and parapet. For the construction of forts, see FORTIFICATION. FORT ADJUTANT, an officer holding an appointment in a fortress-where the garrison is often composed of drafts from different corpsanalogous to that of adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal discipline, and the appropriation of the necessary duties to particular corps. Fort adjutants, of whom there are at present (1862) ten, are staff-officers, and receive 48. 9d. a day in addition to their regimental pay. FORT AUGUSTUS, a village at the south end of Loch Ness, 29 miles south-west of Inverness. A fort, intended to overawe the Highlands, was built here soon after the rebellion of 1715, on a small eminence on the loch. It can accommodate 300 men, but is commanded by neighbouring heights. It was taken by the rebels u 1745, and became the head-quarters of the Duke of Cumberland after the battle of Culloden. It is a quadrangle, with FORT GEORGE-FORTH. a bastion at each of the four corners. The twelve six-pounders formerly mounted here have been removed, but a few soldiers are generally stationed at the fort. FORT GEORGE, a fortification in the north-east of Inverness-shire, on a low sandy projection into the Moray Firth, here only one mile broad, opposite Fortrose, and nine miles north-east of Inverness. It is the most complete fort in the kingdom, and was built, at a cost of £160,000, soon after the rebellion of 1745, to keep the Highlanders in subjection. It covers twelve acres, and can accommodate 2000 men. It is an irregular polygon, with six bastions, and upwards of 70 guns. It is defended by a ditch, covert-way, a glacis, two lunettes, and a ravelin. It has casemated curtains, 27 bomb-proof rooms, bombproof magazines, and is supplied with water from eight pump-wells. It is, however, only secure from attack by sea. If Sir John Fortescue ever was de facto chancellor and in the exercise of the duties of the office, it must have been now, after the second battle of St Albans, and at the very conclusion of the reign of Henry VI.' In March of that year, he fought at the battle of Towton for that monarch, and was attainted by the parliament under Edward IV. He accompanied the queen, Margaret of Anjou, and her young son, Prince Edward, on their flight into Scotland, and while there wrote a treatise in support of the claim of the House of Lancaster to the English crown. In 1463, he embarked with the queen and her son for Holland, where he remained for several years, intrusted with the education of the young prince. During his exile, he wrote his celebrated work, De Laudibus Legum Angliæ, for the instruction of his royal pupil. In the introduction, and throughout the dialogue, he designates himself Cancellarius.' It was when he was in Scotland that the title of Chancellor of England is said by some to have been conferred upon him by office of chancellor in partibus during his exile, but the dethroned monarch. He probably had the titular he returned with Queen Margaret and her son; never exercised the functions in England. In 1471, on the final defeat of the Lancastrian party at the battle of Tewkesbury, where he is said to have been taken prisoner, finding that parliament and the FORT ROYAL, a fortified seaport of the French nation had recognised the title of Edward IV., he island of Martinique, in the West Indies, is the submitted to that monarch, and, as a condition of capital of the colony. It stands on the west coast, his pardon, wrote a treatise in favour of the claim of in a bay of its own name, in lat. 14° 35′' N., and the House of York. He was allowed to retire to his long. 61° 4′ W. It has a population of about 12,000, seat of Ebrington, in Gloucestershire, where he died and contains offices for the local government, bar-in his 90th year. His male representative was, in racks, arsenal, and hospital. FORT GEORGE (INDIA). See MADRAS. FORT MAJOR, the next officer to the governor or commandant in a fortress. He is expected to understand the theory of its defences and works, and is responsible that the walls are at all times duly protected. He is on the staff, and receives 98. 6d. a day in addition to his half-pay. FORT ST DAVID, on the Coromandel or east coast of Hindustan, belongs to the district of South Arcot and presidency of Madras. It is three miles to the north of Cuddalore, and 100 to the south of Madras, in lat. 11° 45' N., and long. 79° 50 E. The place became British in 1691. It occupied a prominent position in the great struggle for supremacy between England and France. From 1746 to 1758, it was the capital of the settlements of the former power on the Carnatic; but soon afterwards, its fortifications having been demolished, it sank into comparative insignificance. FORT WILLIAM, a village in Inverness-shire, near the west base of Ben Nevis, 63 miles southwest of Inverness, and at the south end of the Caledonian Canal. A fort was originally built here by General Monk, and afterwards rebuilt on a smaller scale by William III. It is an irregular work, with ditch, glacis, ravelin, bomb-proof magazine, and barracks for 100 men. It resisted sieges by the Highlanders in 1715 and 1745. It was one of the old keys to the West Highlands, and is now only inferior to Oban as a centre for tourists to explore these romantic regions. FORT WILLIAM (INDIA). See CALCUTTA. FORTÉ, in Music, the Italian term for loud; fortissimo, as loud as possible. FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN, an eminent judge and writer on English law, descended from a Devonshire family, was the son of Sir Henry Fortescue, Lord Chief-justice of Ireland, and was born some time in the reign of Henry IV. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1441 was made serjeant-at-law. The following year, he was appointed Lord Chief-justice of the Court of King's Bench. In the struggle for the crown between the Houses of York and Lancaster, he steadily adhered to the latter, and is supposed to have been for a time Lord High Chancellor of England. Lord Campbell, in his Lives of the Lord Chancellors (vol. i p. 367), under date February 17, 1461, says: but 1789, created Earl Fortescue and Viscount Ebrington in the peerage of Great Britain. FORTH, a river of Scotland, rises in the northwest of Stirlingshire, in the mountains between Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond, from two main branches, the Duchray, 16 miles long, from the east side of Ben Lomond, and the Avendhu, 12 miles long, flowing through Lochs Chon, Dhu, and Ard. These streams unite at Aberfoyle, and issue from the mountains. The F. then runs east and south-east along the borders of Perth and Stirling shires, with numerous windings, in a wide valley abounding in picturesque scenery. It passes Stirling, and a little above Alloa it widens out into the Firth of Forth. The F. is only 30 miles long in a straight line from its source to the mouth of the Devon; but, owing to its sinuosities, its real course is more than twice that length. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons to Stirling. Its chief tributaries are the Teith, the Allan, and the Devon. The upper parts of the F. and Teith traverse some of the most romantic lake and mountain scenery in Scotland. FORTH, FIRTH OF, an arm of the sea, or the estuary of the river Forth, lies between the counties of Clackmannan, Perth, and Fife on the north, and those of Stirling, Linlithgow, Edinburgh, and Haddington on the south. It first extends 6 miles south-east from where the Devon joins the Forth; then, with an average breadth of 24 miles, it runs 10 miles to Queensferry; and finally, it extends 36 miles north-east, gradually expanding in width to 15 miles between Fife-ness and Tantallon Castle on the coast of Haddingtonshire. Its waters are from 7 to 30 fathoms deep, and encircle the Isle of May, Bass Rock, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Cramond Isle, &c. On the coast, are many fine harbours. St Margaret's Hope, above Queensferry, is one of the safest roadsteads in the kingdom. The chief rivers which fall into the firth are the Forth, Carron, Avon, Almond, Esk, and Leven. The counties along its shore are the most fertile and best cultivated in Scotland, and include the maritime towns of North Berwick, FORTHCOMING-FORTIFICATION. FORTIFICATION, a term derived through the Italian from the Latin fortis and facere, means literally the 'making strong' of any place whatever, be it a town, an arsenal, a camp, a mere house, or the extended position of an army occupying a tract of country, a province, or even a kingdom. In effect, the term is limited to strengthening by means of walls, ditches, or other stationary obstructions, aided more or less by artillery, which may impede hostile advance. Fortification cannot pretend to render strongholds impregnable, for no works, however skilfully devised, will withstand the continued fire of well-directed artillery, backed by energy and discretion on the part of assailants: its aim is to enable a beleaguered garrison to hold out, without losing ground, until it can be relieved by the advance of allies operating in the field. In fortifying a place, the engineer usually proceeds upon some defined system of entourage; but if he hope for success, his science must be sufficiently elastic to adapt itself to all the natural features of the locality; and from this it follows that a system perfect in theory, and of universal application, will in practice have to undergo modifications, differing in almost every instance. the earth. Accoutred troops must remove these before they can pass, and the operation of removal under fire from the besieged is a very serious one indeed. tion) are pointed iron or wooden rods fixed crosswise Chevaux-de-frise (q. v. for derivation and illustrain a wooden beam, and until removed offering a complete obstacle to progress. They are very useful in a breach or other unclosed portion of a work, and are now made in pieces, so as to be portable, and yet ready for immediate putting together. A cheval-de-frise is usually 12 feet long, with a beain 9 inches square. Chausse-trapes, or Caltrops (q. v.), give serious annoyance to troops advancing, and are especially dangerous in cases of night-attack. Their use was, however, more general formerly than it is now. Trous-de-loup (wolf-traps), which are deep holes dug, and armed at the bottom with spikes, young trees cut down and their stumps pointed, inverted harrows, broken sword-blades, bayonets, or any similar annoyances, are resorted to as expedients to gain time, and thereby insure a more deadly fire on the assailants. They are frequently constructed in the glacis of a work. Fraises and Stockades represent another form of additional defence, and are stout posts driven horizontally or perpendicularly into the earth, in long E C F Fig. 1.-Fraise and Stockade (in section): The origin of the art is involved in an obscurity which history need not hope to penetrate. The AB, parapet; C, escarp; D, fraise; E, stockade; F, glacis; earliest records of all nations speak of walled cities and forts. The prime element of all fortification is the parapet (from Italian para, before; petto, the breast), which may be a wooden stockade, a wall of masonry, or a mound of earth, and is intended to give more or less cover to the defender from the projectiles of his adversary, while he is still able to use his own weapons against the latter. The simplest form of parapet being the mound of earth, the ground adjoining it would probably be dug up for its formation, and from this would almost unconsciously ensue the ditch, as an additional means of separating the assailant and the assailed. Starting, then, from this parapet and ditch or fosse, as the elementary forms of defence, it will be well, before proceeding to describe the ancient and modern systems, to give concise practical definitions of the parts, adjuncts, and technical names of a fortification. The first duty of a defender is to prevent, as far as possible, the enemy's near approach to any of his works. In developed systems, this is sought to be done by bastions, &c. (of which hereafter), which stand out at angles to the general line, so as to afford a fire commanding all parts. But as cases occasionally happen of troops, defended by a mere straight parapet and ditch, having to withstand the advance of the enemy, it is necessary to adopt every measure which can obstruct his path, harass his advance, and, if possible, aid in cutting off his retreat in the event of failure. Abattis (q. v.) are among the simplest obstacles to be improvised, consisting of trees cut down, shorn of their leaves and smaller twigs, having their branches pointed, and then laid close together, in one or more lines parallel to the works, branches outward, and trunks imbedded or pinned down in G, ditch; H, counterscarp. defences in the ditch of a fortress, and it will be per close rows. Fig. 1 shews the use of both these ceived at once how formidable to an attacking party solid lines of these posts must be. The stockade forms likewise, at times, a good substitute for the parapet itself, particularly when the direct fire of artillery is unlikely to be brought against it, as in warfare with barbarous tribes, or in a work at the very crest of a steep hill. In this case it is usually constructed of two rows of strong palisades firmly imbedded in the ground: the outer nearly a foot square, planted with three-inch intervals between; the second about six inches in diameter, closing these spaces behind. Every second small palisade is cut Fig. 2.-Stockade. Fig. 3.-Double Stockade. short a few inches, so as to leave a loophole for musketry-fire (as in fig. 2). A hill protected in this manner is shewn in fig. 3. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARAPET.-The object of the parapet being to defend, or defilade a certain FORTIFICATION. portion of ground behind it, its height must be calculated so that missiles passing across its crest shall fail to strike the troops mustered behind. The minimum width defiladed to allow of safe communication for troops behind, and actually defending, is 30 feet; but if the men have to be drawn ap in line, not less than 90 feet will suffice. The mode of ascertaining the height of parapet necessary in particular cases will be seen from the next diagram (fig. 4). Let A be the position at which the parapet is to be made, and AB the space which parapet, since the salient angles can, perhaps, be brought on elevated ground; while the re-entering angles, though with less elevation, may in some B Fig. 5. degree compensate that defect by greater distance from the front. A disadvantage of flanked defences is, that the hostile fire crosses the parapet at a less angle than in the straight line, and may, therefore, be more deadly; indeed, the object of the assailant will always be to obtain an entilade fire along one or more parapets of the defence, as (in fig. 5) an enemy posted at F, would be able to sweep the complete line of the parapet CB. To avoid this, the engineer who constructs the works must ascertain minutely the elevation of the surrounding points, and make his salients at such angles that the prolongation of his parapets towards the enemy shall always fall on low ground, whence no command can be obtained. Now, where the salient angle becomes somewhat acute, and there is an enemy on both fronts, the soldiers defending the right parapet, and standing on its banquette, would be exposed to a reverse or back fire from the enemy in front of the left parapet, beyond the defilading of which they would doubtless he. As a remedy, an internal parapet, called a traverse, or, from its duty, a parados, is raised between the parapets of the salient, its height being determined on precisely the same principles as were made use of in regard to the original parapets. it is required to defilade to a height throughout The foregoing parapet has been provided only as a straight breastwork, deriving its safety solely from its own fire in a direct line upon the besiegers; but in practice such a rampart would be exposed to the disadvantage of holding but little command over the scarp or escurp (part cut away) at its foot; so that, if approached under cover, an enemy could readily lodge himself therein. To guard against this a work is flanked, so that the fire of one part shall take in flank an enemy advancing against another part. See fig. 5, where ABCDE is a flanked or reciprocally defensive parapet, in which it is evident that the fire from AB, DE, must take in flank any force moving on BC or CD, while the latter also, in like manner, flank AB, DE, themselves. In a flanked defence of this sort, the angles, A, C, E, which project towards the country, are technically termed salient angles; those at B and D, re-entering angles. The flanked parapet has often, likewise, the power of defilading larger spaces than the simple line of Where both the faces of the salient are unavoidably so placed as to be enfiladed, a small work, called a bonnet, is constructed at the angle, which consists in the parapet being so raised up to an extra height of twelve feet if necessary, and at the same time widened, that the banquette shall be defiladed. If a height of twelve feet is insufficient to defilade the whole length of the banquette, traversing parapets must be raised at right angles to the face of the work, and within it, at such distances that the whole may be safe: of course, the height of the bonnet and of the traverses must be decided on to those ex- of the work, with steps to aid the ascent (see section in fig. 6); as AB, the crest of the general parapet, with banquette at C; and DE, the bonnet, with banquettes at F and G. In enclosed works-i. e., in works entirely sur rounded by parapets-the position of the parados is of vital importance; and they have often to be devised with great ingenuity, so as to protect the defenders from reverse fire in any direction, and at the same time not to prevent necessary communication between different portions of the fortress. Relief means the height of any point in a work above the plane of construction, which may be the line of sight or the bottom of the ditch. In the latter case, the relief of the parapet is an important |