ENCEINTE ENCRINITES. ENCRI'NAL or ENCRINITAL LIMESTONE, a name given to some carboniferous limestones, from the great abundance in them of the calcareous skeletons of Encrinites (q. v.), whole masses of the rock being almost entirely composed of stiff, first into square blocks. These are cut into ENCORE (Again'), a French expression, genersquare slices or slabs by passing a wire through ally used in England by the audience of a theatre them; upon this is put a facing of fine clay of or concert-room, when requesting the repctition the colour of the ground of the pattern-another of the performance of a piece of music. It is layer, of a different quality of clay, is sometimes not used by the French themselves, who, in similar added to the bottom, to prevent warping. It is then circumstances, exclaim bis (twice). placed in a mould, with a plaster of Paris slab forming the top, on the under surface of which is the pattern in relief. This slab is pressed down, and thus forms a deep impression of the pattern which is to be produced in another colour. The clay of the requisite colour to form the pattern is now poured, in a semi-fluid state, into this depression, and allowed to flow over the whole face of the tile; then it is set aside until dry enough to have its surface scraped and smoothed on a whirling table. By this means, the superfluous clay is removed, and the pattern is brought out quite sharp, the two colours of clay forming one smooth flat surface. The tile is then dried and fired. Tiles of this kind were used for paving churches in England, Flanders, and France, in the 16th c., and earlier, but have since fallen into disuse. The modern manufacture is therefore a revival, with some improvements, of an ancient art. This is one among many other branches of manufacturing art which the Great Exhibition of 1851 had much influence in advancing, first, by stimulating manufacturers to make an effort to shew what could be done, and secondly, by directing public attention to the novelty and its applications. ENCEINTE (Fr.), in Fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified place. Properly, however, it means a cincture or girdle, and in this sense the enceinte signifies the principal wall or rampart encircling the place, comprising the curtain and bastions, and having the main ditch immediately outside it. ENCHO'RIAL CHARACTERS. See HIERO GLYPHICS. E'NCKÉ, JOH. FRANZ, the well-known astronomer, was born September 23, 1791, at Hamburg, where his father was a clergyman. After studying at Göttingen, he served, during the campaign of 1813-1814, in the artillery of the Hanseatic legion, and in 1815, in the Prussian army, as lieutenant of artillery. On the establishment of peace, he left the service, and became assistant, and afterwards principal astronomer in the observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha. In 1825, chiefly at the instigation of Bessel, he was called to Berlin as successor to Tralles, in the secretaryship of the Academy of Sciences, and as director of the observatory. While at Gotha, the astronomical prize offered by Cotta was awarded to E. by the judges Gauss and Olbers, for his determination of the orbit of the comet of 1680. This led him to solve another problem, which had been proposed along with the other-viz., the distance of the sun. The solution, by means of the two transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, is published in two separate tracts (Die Entfernung der Sonne, Gotha, 1822-1824). In 1819, he proved that the comet discovered by Pons, November 26, 1818, revolved in the hitherto incredibly short period of about 1200 days, and had been already observed in 1786, 1795, and 1805. It has since gone by the name of E.'s comet, and has appeared regularly; the period of its recurrence being 3-29 years, or about 3 years. See COMETS. E.'s researches on this subject are contained in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy. In 1830, he undertook the editing of the Berlin Astronomical Almanac, in which he has published a number of astronomical treatises. Three volumes have appeared of Astronomical Observations at the Berlin Observatory (Berl. 1840–1851). them. E'NCRINITES, a name applied generally to the fossil Crinoidea, a family of Echinodermata (q. v.). The popular name, Stone Lilies, is given to the numerous fossil species, from the resemblance which many of them present when the rays are closed to the lily. Hence also the name Crinoidea. Crinoids are characterised by having their bodies supported, during the whole or part of their existence, on a longer or shorter jointed calcareous stem. The stem is attached either by the expanded base, or by jointed processes, to the rocky bed of the sea, or perhaps, in some cases, to floating bodies, like barnacles. Occasionally, numerous root-like side-arms are sent out from the base of the stem to strengthen and support it; and in some species, as in the recent Pentacrinus, the column throughout its length is furnished Encrinite Stems (Mountain Limestone). with axillary side-arms. The stem is round or fivesided; in one genus only is it elliptical. It is composed of a number of joints, perforated in the centre, for the passage of a soft portion of the animal, and beautifully sculptured on the articulating surfaces. The body is cup-shaped, and composed of manysided plates on the under surface, to the centre of which the stalk is attached, while the upper surface is covered with a coriaceous skin, protected by many small plates. On this was situated the mouth, which was frequently proboscidiform, and near it was the anal orifice-the alimentary canal being turned upon itself, as in the Bryozoa. The arms spring from the edges of the cup. They are five in number at their origin, but, with few exceptions, speedily divide and subdivide dichotomously. The arms are composed of articulated calcareous joints, similar to those of the stems. Each joint is furnished with two slenderjointed appendages or cirri, of use to the animal in capturing its prey, which consisted of mollusca and other small animals. The number of joints in some species is truly amazing. Dr Buckland calculated that Pentacrinus Briareus consists of at least 150,000; and as each joint,' according to Carpenter, was furnished with at least two bundles of muscular fibre-one for its extension, the other for its contraction-we have 300,000 such in the body of a single Pentacrinus, an amount of muscular apparatus far exceeding anything that has elsewhere been observed in the animal kingdom.' E. are represented in the British seas by one species, Comatula rosacea, which in its perfect state is free, and moves about in the same manner as other star-fishes, but is in its structure a true crinoid, and, in fact, when young, has the flexible talk characteristic of the order. It is doubtful whether more than one species (Pentacrinus Caput Medusa) ENCRINITES-ENCYCLOPÆDIA. Apio Crinites Rotundus (from Buckland's Bridgewater a, expanded; b, closed; c, shewing where the stem has been injured, and repaired by calcareous secretion. first in the Lias. The earlier seas literally swarmed with these animals. 'We may judge,' says Dr Buckland, of the degree to which the individual crinoids multiplied among the first inhabitants of the sea, from the countless myriads of their petrified remains which fill so many limestone beds of the older formations, and compose vast strata of entrochal marble, extending over large tracts of country in Northern Europe and North America. The substance of this marble is often almost as entirely made up of the petrified bones of Encrinites, as a corn-rick is composed of straws.' See CRINOIDEE and PENTACRINUS. ENCYCLOPEDIA means properly a book or work professing to give information, more or less full, on the whole circle of human knowledge. The name is compounded of two Greek words, enkyklos, circular or general; and paideia, discipline or instruction. These words were used by the Greeks and Romans to signify the circle of instruction through which every free-born youth had to pass before entering on public life. That circle embraced more particularly grammar, music, geometry, astronomy, and gymnastics, and afterwards became the 'seven liberal arts' of the middle ages. The compound name Encyclopædia appears to have been unknown to the Greeks, and also to the Latin writers of the classic period; and there is no evidence that either Greeks or Romans ever applied the words, single or compounded, to designate a book. The short form Cyclopædia has still less classical authority than Encyclopædia. Encyclopædias, in the modern sense of the word, are most commonly Alphabetical; but sometimes the arrangement is rational,' i. e., according to the natural relations of the subjects. An alphabetical Encyclopædia is a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Besides this, its proper meaning, of a repertory of universal knowledge, the name Encyclopædia is often applied-less properly perhaps to alphabetical works whose scope is limited to a particular branch-works differing in no respect from others which are styled Dictionaries, Gazetteers, &c. See DICTIONARY. As all works of this kind, which now form a large and increasing section of literature in every language, have in so far a common character with Encyclopædias proper, we may give some account of the whole class under the present head. For the sake of convenience, they may be arranged in three divisions: 1. The earlier works of this kind, having, for the most part, merely an encyclopædic character, i. e., embracing a large range of subjects, without distinctly aiming at univer sality; 2. Encyclopædias proper, which treat of th whole circle of human knowledge; 3. Books pro fessedly confined to a definite department of know ledge, whether under the name of encyclopædia dictionary, gazetteer, or other title. As books of this class profess to touch on every important point that comes within their scope, they may be considered as encyclopædic in a limited sense. In the following sketch, the distinction between the first and second of those classes, which is of a somewhat indeterminate kind, is not strictly adhered to when it would interfere with the chronological sequence. 1. The earliest work of an encyclopædic character is generally ascribed to Speusippus, a disciple of Plato. The great collections of Varro (Rerum Humanarum et Divinarum Antiquitates and Disciplinarum libri ix.), of the elder Pliny (Historia Naturalis), of Stobæus, of Suidas, of Isidorus (the but they exhibit no plan, and are only confused Origines), and of Capella, belong to the same class, accumulations of the then known arts and sciences. Vincent of Beauvais (1264) surpassed them all. He gathered together with wonderful diligence the entire knowledge of the middle ages in three comprehensive works, Speculum Historiale, Speculum Naturale, and Speculum Doctrinale, to which soon after an unknown hand added a Speculum Morale. But these, as well as the other similar compilations which appeared in the later medieval period under the title of Summa, or Speculum (Mirror), are marked throughout by a lack of philosophic spirit. Perhaps the nearest approach to the modern encyclopædia by an ancient writer, dates two centuries earlier than the time of Beauvais. In the tenth century, flourished Alfarabius, the ornament of the school of Bagdad, who wrote an encyclopædic collection of ENCYCLOPÆDIA. knowledge, remarkable for its grasp and complete- where received with the greatest enthusiasm, and ness, and which still lies in MS. in the Escorial of it secured a place in the literary history of the Spain. Among the earliest and most noted of the nation for the editors and principal writers, who modern encyclopædias was that of Johann Heinrich are ordinarily known as the Encyclopedists of France. Alsted, or Alstedius, which appeared in Germany They were D'Alembert and Diderot the editors, in two volumes in 1630. It consisted of 35 books Rousseau, Grimm, Dumarsais, Voltaire, Baron in all, of which the first four contained an explana- d'Holbach, and Jancourt. [See La Porte's Esprit de tion of the nature of the rest. Then followed l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1768); and Voltaire's Quessix on philology, ten on speculative, and four on tions sur l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1770).] D'Alempractical philosophy; three on theology, juris- bert's celebrated preliminary discourse was garbled prudence, and medicine; three on the mechanical in various pretentious works of this class pubarts; and five on history, chronology, and miscel- lished for the most part in England; such were laneous topics. Two important French works Barrow's New and Universal Dictionary of Arts belong to this century-the one is Louis Moreri's and Sciences, 1 vol. folio, 1751; and the ComGrand Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, of which plete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, by Croker, the first edition appeared at Paris in 1673, and the Williams, and Clerk, 3 vols. folio, 1766. A somelast in 1759; the other, Peter Bayle's famous what better, though rather illogical performance Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, published at was published by a 'Society of Gentlemen' in 1754 Rotterdam, in 4 vols., 1697. The first encyclopædic in four 8vo volumes, generally known as Owen's dictionary, so far as known, appeared in Germany as Dictionary, from the name of the publisher of it. the Lexicon Universale of Hoffmann (2 vols., Basel) The first rude outline of the ponderous and solid in 1677. Some time after there appeared in France Encyclopædia Britannica was laid down in the year Thomas Corneille's Dictionnaire des Arts et des 1771, in three volumes, but it was nothing more Sciences, 2 vols. (Paris, 1694). Dictionaries limited than a dictionary of arts and sciences; it had not to the explanation of technical terms had long yet attained to its subsequent universality. Such is been common throughout Europe; but previous to a brief outline of the earlier kind of encyclopædias. Hoffmann's work, no attempt had been made to 2. The first encyclopædia proper that demands bring the whole body of science and art under the our attention is the Encyclopædia Britannica, of lexicographic form. A highly successful attempt which the 2d comparatively complete edition, identical in kind, and attributable in idea, it may containing biographical and historical articles, be, to the German work just alluded to, was the appeared in 10 vols. between 1776 and 1783; the Lexicon Technicum of Dr Harris, 2 vols. folio (Lon- 3d edition was completed in 18 vols. in 1797; the don, 1710), which may fairly be regarded as the 4th edition, in 20 vols., in 1810; the 5th and parent of all the dictionaries of arts and sciences 6th editions (which were not true reprints), and that have since appeared in England. The Cyclo- supplements in 6 vols., appeared between 1815padia of Ephraim Chambers, published in 1728, in 1824; the 7th edition, in 21 vols., in 1830-1842; two very large folio volumes, presents the next and the 8th and last edition, in 21 vols., 1852— marked advance in the construction of encyclo- 1860. The method pursued by this work, while pædical dictionaries. This one was brought out thoroughly alphabetical, consists in a combination with considerable claims to originality of arrange- of the systematic and the particular. In few ment. The author endeavoured to communicate to instances is any science broken up into fractional his alphabetical materials something of the interest parts; nearly all the sciences are given in treatises of a continuous discourse,' by an elaborate system as they severally occur in the order of the alphabet. of cross references. Another peculiarity of this In some cases, however, where obscurity might cyclopædia was, that its author, in the details of result from such a plan, the other method is adopted. mathematical and physical science, gave only con- A marked feature of this work, is the number of clusions and not processes of demonstration. It was complete treatises and dissertations which it conlong a very popular work. The largest and most tains by men of European name. From first to comprehensive of the successors to Hoffmann's book last, this Encyclopædia has been executed and in Germany, was Zedler's Universal Lexicon, 64 published in Edinburgh, the literary reputation of vols. (Leip. 1732-1750). In point of comprehen- which it has helped in no small degree to increase. siveness, this work should be classed with the The next encyclopædia that we must notice is the encyclopædias proper, there being almost nothing Encyclopédie Méthodique par Ordre des Matières, then known that may not be found in it. Perhaps which was begun in 1781, and was not finished the strongest impulse, if not in all respects the till 1832, when it appeared in 201 volumes. Each best, communicated by this successful attempt of subject is treated in a separate volume or series Ephraim Chambers, was given to the French mind of volumes, so that the work is a collection of through D'Alembert and Diderot. Their Encyclo- separate dictionaries, more extensive than any ency pédie was really, though not professedly, founded clopædic work that has yet appeared. A work upon E. Chambers's book, which an Englishman of higher scientific value, however, and even of named Mills had translated between 1743 and 1745, a more varied nature, has been in progress for though the French version of it never was published. nearly half a century in Germany, undertaken The great French Encyclopédie was written by originally by Professors Ersch and Gruber in 1818, various authors of high literary and philosophical and which has since continued to appear, in three attainments, but of whom nearly all were tainted several sections of the alphabet, up to the present too much with the most impracticable revolutionary time. There have already (1861) appeared of this ideas, besides holding for the most part extremely great Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaft und sceptical opinions concerning religion. They excluded Künste some 125 volumes. In 1802, Dr Abraham both biography and history from its scope, yet Rees projected an extended and improved edition infused into it more originality, depth, and ability of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopædia, which was than ever had appeared before within the boards completed in 45 volumes in 1819. The system of of an encyclopædical dictionary. It appeared at cross references peculiar to E. Chambers is very Paris in 28 vols. between the years 1751-1772, effectually carried out in this book; but besides and was followed by a Supplement in five vols. including a great accession of historical and bio(Amst. 1776-1777), and an analytical index in graphical detail, it contained a large number of two vols. (Paris, 1780). The work was every-papers, prepared by competent writers. on subjects . ENCYCLOPEDISTS-END. with which their life had rendered them familiar. Another work of considerable merit, which began to appear in 1810, was Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopadia, edited by Dr (now Sir David) Brewster, and completed in 18 volumes in 1830. It was, if anything, too much given up to physical science, even for the taste of the 19th century. In 1812, a great impetus was given to encyclopaedic publications by the appearance of the Conversations-Lexicon of F. A. Brockhaus of Leipsic. It has since gone through as many as ten editions, the last issue of it, amounting to 15 volumes, having appeared between 1851 and 1855. It has been translated into nearly all the civilised languages of Europe; no fewer than four English works of the kind being professedly founded on it these are the Encyclopædia Americana, in 14 vols. (Philadelphia, 1829-1848); the Popular Encyclopædia, 7 vols. (Glasgow, 1841); the American Cyclopedia, and Chambers's Encyclopædia, both in course of publication. Of these, the last-mentioned is a substantially new work, following in its construction the admirable plan of the ConversationsLexicon, but making use of its valuable matter only so far as it is found suitable. encyclopædias are Meyer's Grosse Conversations The next encyclopedic work which appeared after the Conversations-Lexicon, was one projected according to an original philosophic plan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in 1818, and finished in 1845, in 30 volumes. This Encyclopædia Metropolitana was arranged in four divisions: 1st, the pure sciences; 2d, the mixed and applied sciences; 3d, biography and history; and 4th, miscellaneous and lexicographic articles. The contributions to the first two divisions were written by persons of recognised ability, and they have nearly all been published separately in 8vo volumes since the Metropolitana appeared. If the book had any fault, it was that the plan of it was too rigidly philosophical, and therefore not adapted to be consulted dictionary fashion; for although in one sense the alphabetic arrangement, by its jumble of subjects, is most heterogeneous and irrational, it recommends itself to popular acceptance by its extreme simplicity; and in point of fact, no encyclopædia has ever been thoroughly popular that has not been executed on the plan of a single alphabet, in which all subjects, however various, are included. Next appeared the Penny Cyclopedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, which was begun in 1833, and completed in 1843, in 28 volumes. This work was perhaps, at the time it appeared, the most useful and convenient, for the purposes of general consultation, of any encyclopædical treatise that had ever been issued. The English Cyclopædia is founded on the copyright of the Penny Cyclopædia, but is rearranged into four great divisions, which are each given in the order of the alphabet, viz., geography, natural history, biography, and arts and sciences. This publication was begun in 1853, and was com pleted in 1861 in 22 volumes. Among a host of abridgments and smaller publications of this char- END. This familiar word is concerned in some acter which have appeared in the course of the important discussions, and especially in Ethics. It is. present century, may be mentioned Wilkes's Ency in the sense of the thing aimed at,' the object, clopedia Londonensis, in 24 vols. 4to (Lond. 1810 purpose, or goal of human action, that we have here -1829); the Encyclopædia Perthensis, in 23 vols. to consider it. There is a fundamental contrast. (Edinburgh, 1816); and the London Encyclopædia, between Science and Art, Knowledge and Practice.. 22 vols. (Lond. 1829). The French have likewise Science, or Knowledge, embraces the general order published an Encyclopédie des Gens du Monde, in of the universe, and states that order in the form 22 vols. 8vo (Par. 1833-1844); an Encyclopédie by which we can take in as much as possible in one Moderne, which, with its Supplement, occupies view; it is the fullest intellectual comprehension of 36 vols. 8vo (Par. 1857); and a Dictionnaire de la the phenomena of nature that the mind can attain. Conversation et de la Lecture, in 68 vols. (Par. 1839 to. Art, or Practice, on the other hand, selects. -1851), of which a new edition, begun in 1851, and appropriates certain items of knowledge, so as is still in progress. The last of these is to a to subserve some useful purpose, some exigency large extent based on the Conversations-Lexicon of of human life. Thus, Agriculture, Navigation, Law, Brockhaus. The most notable of the other German Politics, Education are all branches of Practice 1848; new edit. 1849-1851); the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1 vol. (1848); the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, 2 vols. (1854-1857); and the Dictionary of the Bible, 2 vols. (1860-1861). These dictionaries are the product of the ripest scholarship in Britain, and are perhaps the most splendid specimen of encyclo pædias devoted to special branches of knowledge that have anywhere appeared. See DICTIONARY. ENCYCLOPÉDISTS. See ENCYCLOPÆDIA. to their several purposes. ENDEMIC ENDIVE. Astronomy, not with a view to enlighten his under- Such they involve knowledge, but in strict subordination distance from the source of the poison. The navigator studies poisons are always observed to be more virulent in summer than in winter-more dangerous at night, when the vapours are concentrated on the surface of the soil, than in the day-time-more abundant in the plains, and in close confined places, than at a certain degree of elevationmore easily carried in the direction of the wind than in the opposite-and very often arrested altogether by water, or by a belt of forest or other luxuriant vegetation. In all these particulars, endemic are different from epidemic diseases, which bear no very obvious relation to the soil, and are not observed to be considerably modified either by the prevailing winds or the period of the day or night at which exposure to their influence takes place. The most marked type of an endemic disease is Ague (q. v.) or Intermittent Fever, which has all the habits mentioned above, and is to so marked a degree a denizen of particular tracts of country as to lead to their being in some instances almost depopulated. Many places in Italy are a prey to the aria cattiva or malaria, as it is popularly called; and hence, no doubt, even more than for protection from human foes, the custom so prevalent in that country of building the villages on the tops of hills, so as to secure immunity from the poisonous vapours raised by the solar heat from the plains lying on either side at the base of the Apennines. Terrestrial miasms, or such poisons as generate endemic diseases, are usually found in the neighbourhood of marshy flats, or of uncultivated tracts of land at the confluence of rivers, or where a delta, or a wide channel subject to overflow, is formed at the upper end of a lake. In proportion, too, as the heat of the sun is greater, the tendency to malarious emanations is increased; and in the tropics, accordingly, large tracts of jungle and forest are often rendered absolutely uninhabitable and almost impassable at certain seasons, by the invisible and odourless germs of intermittent, remittent, and even continued Fevers (q. v.), which are more fatal and unmanageable than the most terrible epidemic pestilences to those who are exposed to them. Such diseases are almost always sudden in their mode of attack, and they indicate the range of their influence by the number of persons attacked; but they are wholly free in most cases from the suspicion of communication by Contagion (q. v.), which is so frequent in the case of epidemic diseases. The precise nature of the malarious poison has never yet been discovered with any approach to exactness. It is known, however, to be almost invariably checked by drainage and cultivation of the soil; and hence many places in Europe, formerly very productive of endemic diseases, have now ceased to be so, as in the case of the Tuscan Maremma, and some parts of Kent and Essex, and of the Lothians in Scotland. ENDE MIC (from en, among, and demos, the people), a term applied to diseases which affect numbers of persons simultaneously, but so as to shew a connection with localities as well as with their inhabitants. Endemic diseases are usually spoken of as contrasted with Epidemic (q. v.) and Sporadic (q. v.); the first term indicating that a disease infests habitually the population within certain geographical limits, and also that it is incapable of being transferred or communicated beyond those limits; while, on the other hand, a disease is termed epidemic if it is transmitted without reference to locality; and sporadic if it occurs in isolated instances only. The theory, accordingly, of endemic diseases is, that they are in some way or other connected with the soil-the result of terrestrial influences, or miasms-of poisons generated within the earth, or near its surface, and diffused through the air, so as to be weakened in proportion to the It 1831, lies in lat. 67° 30′ S., and long. 50° E. E'NDERBY LAND, discovered by Biscoe in appeared to the discoverer to be of corsiderable extent, and was closely bound by field ice, but owing to stress of weather and the extreme cold, it could not be approached within 20 or 30 miles, and Biscoe was thus unable to say whether the land he discovered was an island or a strip of continental coast. E'NDIVE (Cichorium Endivio), an annual or biennial plant, of the same genus with Chicory (q. v.), said to be a native of China and Japan, but which is naturalised in the Levant, and has long been in cultivation as a garden vegetable; its blanched root-leaves being much used as a salad, |