ENDOCARDITIS-ENDOSMOSE. and also sometimes for stewing and in soups. The root-leaves are numerous, smooth, wavy at the margin. The varieties with much curled leaves are preferred. Some of the varieties boll of themselves, and are thus blanched; others require to be tied up. In Britain, the seed is usually sown from the middle of May to the end of June, and by a little care and protection, plants may be kept fit for use throughout most of the winter." ENDOCARDITIS, inflammation or disease of the internal surface of the heart, resulting in the deposit of fibrin upon the valves. See HEART, DISEASE OF. ENDO'GENOUS PLANTS, or ENDOGENS (Gr. endon, within, and genos, birth or origin), one of the great classes into which the vegetable kingdom is divided, the others receiving the corresponding designations of Exogenous Plants and Acrogenous Plants. The character from which this designation is derived is found in the structure of the stem, which does not increase in thickness by additional layers on the outside like the exogenous stem, familiarly illustrated in all the trees of the colder parts of the world, but receives its additions of woody matter in the interior; and in general does not continue to increase indefinitely in thickness like the exogenous stem, but is arrested when a certain thickness has been attained, different in different species, and afterwards increases only in length. When a transverse section is made of an Transverse and Vertical Sections of Endogenous Stem. endogenous stem, numerous bundles of vessels are seen dispersed irregularly in cellular tissue, the younger and softer parts of the stem exhibiting the cellular tissue in greatest proportion, the older and lower parts chiefly abounding in vascular bundles, which are, however, somewhat scattered in the central part of the stem, and are densely aggregated towards the circumference, there, in the palms generally, forming very hard wood, in some of them wood so hard that it cannot be cut with a hatchet. The stems of endogenous plants in the far greater number of cases produce terminal buds only, and not lateral buds, and are therefore unbranched. From the bases of the leaves, definite bundles of vascular tissue converge towards the centre; but these extending downwards extend also outwards, and thus an interlacing of fibres takes place, which contributes not a little to the strength and compactness of the wood in the lower part of the stem. As the fibres extend downwards, they also become attenuated, spiral and porous vessels disappearing, and nothing but the most ligneous substance remaining. It is the hardening of the outer part of the stem which arrests its increase in thickness. Endogenous stems have not a distinct pith, nor any medullary rays. When the central part is soft and pith-like, yet it is not distinctly separated from the surrounding wood, and has no medullary sheath. In many endogenous plants, as in the greater number of grasses, the centre of the stem is hollow. This is not the ase at first, then the stem begins to grow; and when any cause makes the growth of the stem unusually slow, so that it is much stunted, it remains solid; the fistular character of the stem is the result of its rapid growth, rupturing the cells of the central portion, which finally disappear. Endogenous stems have no cambium and no proper bark. There is, indeed, a cellular epidermis; and there is also within it, and exterior to the hardest woody part of the stem, a comparatively soft layer bark, sometimes false bark, which does not separate of a corky substance, which is sometimes called from the wood below it without leaving myriads of little broken threads, the ends of the fibres which have extended into it from the hardest part of the stem. In those exogenous plants which produce lateral buds and branches, the fibres of the branches on descending to the stem extend on the outside of the proper stem, between its hardest portion and the false bark; and in this way a great thickness is sometimes attained, as in the dragontree. In the Grasses, a plexus of fibres takes place at the nodes, the fibres crossing from one side to the other. No British tree-and it may almost be said, no tree of temperate or colder climates-is endogenous. Almost all the endogenous trees are palms, although a few, as the dragon-tree, belong to other orders. Endogenous plants, however, are numerous in all parts of the world. Among endogenous plants are many of the plants most useful to mankind, particularly palms and grasses, all the true cornplants being included among the latter. Nutritious substances are very extensively produced both in the fruit or seed, and in other parts; poisonous products are comparatively rare, although found in the Araceae, Liliacea, Melanthaceae, and other orders. Aromatic secretions are characteristic chiefly of one order, Scitamineæ. Besides palms and grasses, Imany of the endogenous plants are of great beauty, and many produce most beautiful flowers. Lilies and orchids may be mentioned as instances. Endogenous plants are monocotyledonous; and the terms endogenous and monocotyledonous are therefore often employed indiscriminately to designate the class. But Lindley distinguishes a class of Dictyogens (q. v.), which, although monocotyledonous, have stems approaching to the exogenous character. The leaves of endogenous plants generally exhibit parallel venation, which is indeed strictly confined to them, although a venation resembling it, or rather simulating it, may be seen in some exogenous plants. The seed also germinates in a peculiar manner, different from that of exogenous plants, and to which the name endorhizal has been given, the radicle being protruded from within the substance of the embryo, and surrounded by a cellular sheath formed from the integument which it breaks in its egress. ENDO'RSE. See BILL. ENDORSE, in Heraldry, an Ordinary containing the fourth part of a pale. Endorsed, again, or indorsed, signifies that objects are placed on the shield back to back. ENDOSMO'SE AND EXOSMO'SE (Gr. inward motion and outward motion), terms applied by Dutrochet, the first investigator, to the transfusion that takes place when two liquids or two gases of different densities are separated by an animal or a vegetable membrane. As the transmission has no necessary relation to outwards or inwards, the term osmose, or osmotic action, is now preferred. See DIFFUSION. This action performs a very important part in living organisms, and explains many phenomena of the circulation of sap and the processes of nutrition, which were previously referred only to the wonderful ENDYMION-ENEMY. action of vital energy. Thus, the blood continually he is to be held guilty of treason. Under this streaming through the capillary vessels gives forth statute, the subjects of states at war with us are a portion to the surrounding cells, and so supplies them with the necessary chyle. This may, however, by ths expansion of the capillary vessels (see INFLAMMATION, lead to immoderate exudation. On the other hand, the blood, in passing by, takes up a number of worn-out constituents of the juices of these ceils, and in this way serves, by the exchange which it effects, to restore the body, and to disburden it of products which have become useless.-In plants also, osmose performs an important part in the process of nutrition and the motion of the sap. The substances in the cells of plants are usually denser than the fluids without, and thus a process of endosmose takes place, by which the plant is supplied in the first instance from the soil, being incapable, however, of appropriating any nourishment which is not presented in a liquid state to the fibrils of its roots; whilst that which the roots give off by exosmose, is supposed gradually to unfit the soil for the growth of the same kind of plant. The bursting of the capsules of some kinds of plants is owing to a process of endosmose going on in the cells, as in the fruit of the Elaterium or Squirting Cucumber. Some of the Entozoa, as tape-worms, seem to live entirely by endosmose. See OSMOTIC ACTION. ENDY'MION, in Greek Mythology, was a son either of Zeus or of Aethlios, and followed, according to some accounts, the occupation of a herdsman or hunter, but according to others, was king of Elis. On account of his uprightness, he is said to have received, at his own request, from Zeus, the gift of immortality, unfading youth, and everlasting sleep; but another version is, that Zeus having taken him up to Olympus, E. fell in love with Here (Juno), and was condemned by her enraged husband to eternal sleep on Mount Latmos. Others, again, prettily fable that Selene (the Moon), charmed by the beauty of the youth, conveyed him to Caria, and sent him to sleep on Mount Latmos, that she might nightly kiss him unobserved. The Eleans, on the contrary, declared that he died among them, and in proof of it were wont to shew his monument. The myth of E. has been happily interpreted by Max Müller in his article on Comparative Mythology, in the Oxford Essays (1856). E., according to him, is one of the many names of the sun, but with special reference to the setting or dying sun, being formed from enduo, probably a dialectic variety of duo, the technical verb in Greek to express sunset. E. sleeps in the cave of Latmos, i. e., of night (from the same root as Leto or Latona, the night). So far the myth poetically describes certain phenomena of nature, the sinking of the sun in the west, and the rising of the moon, that seems to follow his departing beams. But the original signification of the metaphors becoming lost, as might naturally happen when the words expressing them had only a local usage, it was, we may say, inevitable that people should transfer the metaphors to persons, and invent a history to supply the place of the vanished poetry. And this invention, or, more properly, explanation (for it was doubtless made in all good faith), is what properly constitutes the myth of Endymion. The story has been made the subject of a poem by Keats. ENE'MA (Gr. en, in, and iēmi, I enter), a medicine or fluid substance conveyed into the body by injection, usually through the rectum or lower bowel. See CLYSTER. E'NEMIES, ADHERING TO THE QUEEN'S. By 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2, it is declared that if a man be adherent to the king's enemies in his realm, giving them aid and comfort, in the realm or elsewhere,' held to be enemies, though war has not been solemnly proclaimed. Every species of assistance, whether by joining in acts of hostility, or sending supplies or intelligence to the enemy, is deemed an act of adherence. To incite to hostilities the subjects of a state at amity with us, is not held to fall under this provision. But if the subjects of a friendly state make a hostile invasion, any British subject rendering assistance will be deemed guilty of treason under this clause. See TREASON. ENEMY. An enemy, according to the civil law, is one who has publicly declared war against us, or we against him; all others are thieves or robbers. Hostes hi sunt qui nobis, aut quibus nos, publice bellum decrevimus; cæteri latrones aut prædones sunt. -Digest, i. 16, 118. Thus, in order to constitute an enemy, there must be a public declaration of war. This declaration must also be made by a duly organised state or kingdom, for a declaration of war by any turbulent body of men is not sufficient; and a hostile act committed by private citizens will not justify a war, unless that act be sanctioned by the government. The purpose for which this public declaration is required, is stated by Grotius to be that it may be clearly known that the war is undertaken not as a venture, but by the will of the two people. Hostilities having been formally declared, every subject of the hostile nations becomes an enemy of the opposing state, as do likewise those independent nations which attach themselves to the interests of either party. According to ancient usage, the utmost violence and cruelty was lawful towards those who were enemies of the state; but by the humane principles which prevail in modern times, warfare is to be carried on subject to certain general rules, which are intended as much as may be to abridge the calamities of war, and to protect the rights of individuals. Thus, an army invading an enemy's country is bound to suffer, as far as possible, the peaceable inhabitants to remain unmolested. Unnecessary devastation of the country and the seizure of property are also contrary to the laws of civilised war; and Grotius lays it down that the use of poisoned weapons, and of assas sination, and violence to women, are to be reprobated. On the other hand, individuals taking up arms, without the sanction of the state, in order to annoy an invading enemy, are regarded as lawless marauders. The result of this distinction is, that such persons are not treated as prisoners of war, but are subject to be summarily dealt with by the commander of the invading army. As to the right of individuals to fit out vessels for the annoyance of the enemy, see PRIVATEERING and PIRACY. It appears to be a recognised principle of international law, that the property of an alien enemy residing in either of the hostile states may be confiscated. The Americans, during the war with England, asserted this right in regard to British property found in their territory. But the usage of civilised nations for a long period has much modified the stern rule of law. It is provided by Magna Charta, cap. 30, that if merchants be of a land making war with us, and be found in our realm at the beginning of the wars, they shall be attached without any harm chief justice, how our merchants be intreated there of body or goods, until it be known to us, or our in the land making war against us; and if our merchants be well intreated there, theirs shall be likewise with us.' And by 27 Edw. III. c. 17, merchants of a foreign state at war with us were allowed forty days, after proclamation of hostilities, wherein to remove from the kingdom themselves and their goods; and if that space of time were not ENERGICO-ENGAGEMENT. sufficient, forty days more were to be conceded to them. Vattel (iii. 4, 63) denies that the right to confiscate the goods of an alien enemy is a right inherent in a state by the law of nations, insisting that a sovereign having permitted foreigners to enter the state, and to continue there, had tacitly promised them full liberty and security for their return. Whatever be the principle, there is no doubt that the almost universal practice of modern nations has been to respect the property of individuals at the outbreak of hostilities. Provisions are frequently inserted into commercial treaties, stipulating that, in case of war, the subjects of the enemy shall have time to depart, and even that they should be allowed to remain and carry on a peaceable trade. As to the practice in regard to EMBARGO and LETTERS OF MARQUE, see those articles. The right to confiscate the debts of the subjects of a hostile nation appears to rest on the same basis as that of the confiscation of other property. Trade between the subjects of two hostile powers is absolutely suspended during hostilities, unless permitted by express sanction; and the importation of articles particularly useful in war is contraband. All such articles, whether supplied by subjects of the enemy, or of another state, are seized and confiscated. See CONTRABAND OF WAR; see also PRIZE and PRISONER OF WAR. On the subject of this article, see Grotius, De Jure Belli et Pacis, lib. iii. cc. 3 to 7; Vattel's Law of Nations, b. iii. c. 4 and 5; Kent's Commentaries, vol. i. c. 3. ENERGICO, an Italian term in music, meaning with energy and force; with strong articulation and accentuation, and a marked powerful delivery of the single notes, without losing in distinctness of execution. character, but which had to stop in 1850 for want of funds. Since then, E. has held an important situation on the Lyon and Mediterranean Railway. His principal works are his Doctrine de St Simon, in conjunction with others (Paris, 1830); _his_Traité d'Economie Politique (Paris, 1831), and La Religion Saint-Simonienne (Paris, 1831). His most recent production with which we are acquainted, is a polemical pamphlet entitled Réponse au Père Félix (1858), a preacher who had attacked him. ENFEO'FFMENT. See FEOFFMENT. E'NFIELD RIFLE FACTORY. See SMAIL ARMS FACTORIES, ROYAL. ENFILA'DE is a military term applied to a tire of musketry or artillery made in the direction of the length of a line of troops or of a line of rampart. A besieging battery so placed as to send its shot along any part of the line of a fortification, and inside the parapet, does great execution in dismounting the guns, which thus present the largest surface to the balls. Hence the lines of rampart should be planned that their prolongations may fall in situations inaccessible to the enemy. Where this is not possible, the lines are either broken, or are protected by Bonnets (q. v.), or by Traverses (q. v.), or Blindages (q. v.). In the siege of a fortress, the trenches of approach are cut in a zigzag, to prevent the defenders enfilading them from the walls. ENFRANCHISE, ENFRANCHISEMENT, to make free; the admission to certain liberties or privileges. Thus, a person made a denizen of the country, or receiving the freedom of a city or burgh, is said to be enfranchised. ENFRANCHISEMENT OF COPYHOLDS. See COPYHOLDS. in the canton of Grisons, second only to the Valais land. ENFANTIN, BARTHÉLEMY PROSPER, the chief representative of St Simonism, and as such, usually styled Père Enfantin, was the son of a banker at Paris, where he was born in the year 1796. He became a pupil in the Ecole Polytechnique in 1812, but was expelled in 1814, in consequence of his having joined the pupils who left school and fought against the allies on the heights of Montmartre and St Chaumont. He was afterwards a commercial traveller in Russia, then a banker's clerk, and in 1825 became director of the Caisse Hypothécaire. About this time, he became a disciple of St Simon, whose ideas he developed, after the death of their author, in the Producteur. After the July revolution, E. associated himself with M. Bazard for the active propagation of St Simonism. Bazard preached south-west or upper extremity, and flows through The Inn, which enters the valley at its it in its relations to philosophy and politics; E., it, has many towns upon its banks, the highest mainly in its relations to the social state. Soon, of which, Silvaplana, is about 5600 feet above however, a schism broke out between the two on the sea-level, while the lowest, Martinsbruck, is 3137 question of marriage and the relation of the sexes. feet. The inhabitants devote themselves prinRecognising the mobility of the affections, E. cipally to the rearing of cattle; they also make affirmed that they ought to be 'free,' and of course cheese, and export it largely. More than one-half pronounced against the ties of marriage. E.'s views of the young men emigrate at an early age, and were pushed so far, that government deemed it betake themselves to continental capitals, where necessary to interfere on the grounds of public they often attain comparative wealth, in which case decency. The Supreme Father (as his disciples they almost invariably return, build a house in their were wont rather profanely to call him) was, after a native valley, and therein spend the remainder of trial of two days, sentenced to two years' imprison- their days. Pop. about 11,000, almost all of the ment, and to pay a fine of 100 francs. Being released Reformed or Calvinistic Church. The language at the expiration of a few months, E. went to Egypt, most generally spoken is the Ladin (a corruption and, after an absence of two years, returned to France, and became a post-master and farmer in the of Latin), a Romanic tongue, but differing from vicinity of Lyon. In 1841, he came to Paris, and the other Romanic dialects of the Rhaetian Alps, was appointed a member of the Scientific Commis- and bearing a resemblance to the Italian. sion for Algiers, and on his return from Africa, wrote ENGA'GEMENT, MILITARY, considered as a a sensible, interesting book, entitled Colonisation de conflict between two armies or hostile forces, cannot Algérie (Paris, 1843). After the revolution of be described within limits suitable for this work. 1848, he edited the journal entitled Le Crédit Public, Almost every term applicable to armies in the field a paper retaining much of the old St Simonian bears relation, in some way or other, to a hostile ENGAGEMENT-ENGINEER. gagement, and those terms will be found briefly He died 13th September 1853. Patristic and medieval noticed ander their proper headings. ENGAGEMENT, NAVAL, admits of more precise and terse illustration than a military engagement, because eacl. ship of war is a unit in itself, bounded by a clearly marked watery margin from all the other ships of a fleet. In the small war-vessels of ancient times, before the invention of gunpowder, a naval engagement usually began by running the galleys violently against each other, to crush or sink the enemy by means of the beak or prow. The prows were, for this purpose, armed with brazen or iron points. On the deck was sometimes a kind of turret filled with soldiers, the probable precursor of the forecastle in modern ships; and there was also frequently a platform for accommodating swordsmen, slingers, and javelinmen. High and bulky ships, of no great length, were best for this kind of warfare. Some times a massive piece of iron or lead, called a dolphin, was let down violently from the yard-arm, to crush or break through some part of the enemy's vessel. The men fastened sickles to the end of long poles, to cut the enemy's rigging and sails. Other means for carrying on a hostile attack were batteringrams-heavy maces with very long handles, stonethrowing machines, and grappling-irons. In modern ships, preparations for an engagement are made with the utmost coolness and precision. The boatswain and his mates communicate to all the crew the order to clear for action.' The men take their hammocks, lower them, tie them up, and carry them to the quarter-deck, poop, forecastle, and other parts of the ship, where they are stowed between a double netting above the gunwale, and form a partial defence against the enemy's musketry. The sails, yards, booms, bowsprit, &c., are secured by strong chains and extra ropes, to prevent or lessen disaster if they are shot away. The boatswain and the carpenter collect together, and place at hand all kinds of pieces of wood, iron, rope, and canvas that may be useful in quickly repairing shot-holes and other damage. The gunner and his mates examine the cannon and the filled cartridges, and see that all the implements for gunnery are at hand. The master and his subordinate officers look to the trim and state of the sails. The lieutenants visit all the decks, to see that obstructions of every kind are removed. When the engagement is about to begin, the drums beat to arms. Every man repairs to his place. The marines are drawn up in rank and file on the quarter-deck, poop, and forecastle. The surgeon and his assistants are ready in the cockpit to amputate limbs, extract bullets, and dress wounds. Then begins the battle, which varies in its character according to the number and kind of ships on each side, the nature of the sea, the direction of the wind, and a multitude of other circumstances. In the British navy, the order of battle for a fleet is ordinarily in two lines, each being divided into the Starboard and Port Division or squadron. When the battle is ended, if it has been a severe one, the probabilities are that many men have been killed or wounded, decks and sides battered and splintered, cannon dismounted, rigging, masts, yards, and sails destroyed or torn. The whole ship's crew, except those disabled, then work hard to get the vessel back into trim; an attempt that frequently cannot be realised without aid from other ships, or from the resources of a port. E'NGELHARDT, JOH. GEORG VEIT, a learned German theologian, was born 12th November 1791, at Neustadt on the Aisch, and studied at Erlangen, where, in 1820, he was appointed extraordinary professor, and in 1822 ordinary professor of theology. dogmatics, and Neoplatonism, are the subjects lished at Erlangen a translation of the first Ennead which he has chiefly investigated. In 1820, he pubof Plotinus; in 1823 appeared his translation of the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite. His Kirchengeschichtlichen Abhandlungen (Erl. 1832), Auslegung des speculativen Theils des Evangeliums Johannis durch einen deutschen mystichen Theologen (Erl. 1839), and his contribution to the history of the mystical theology, entitled Richard von St Victor und Johannes Ruysbroek (Erl. 1838), are works of great value, and have thrown a new light on many important points. Very useful, too, especially on his Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte (Erl. 1834), and account of the richness of their special notices, are of his life, wrote many learned dissertations in the Dogmengeschichte (Neustadt, 1839). E., in the course Journal of Historical Theology, among which may be specified his Ueber die Hesychiasten, and Ueber Erasmus Sarcerius. ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI DE BOURBON, Duc D', only son of Prince Henri Louis Joseph, Duc de Bourbon, was born at Chantilly, 2d August 1772. In 1789, he quitted France, and travelled through several countries of Europe. In 1792, he entered the corps of émigrés assembled by his grandfather, the Prince of Condé, on the Rhine, and commanded the vanguard from 1796 until 1799. At the peace of Lunéville, in the year 1801, he went to reside at Ettenheim, an old château on the German side of the Rhine, not far from Strasburg, and within the territories of the Duke of Baden. Here he married the Princess Charlotte of Rohan Rochefort, and lived as a private citizen. When the conspiracy of the Bourbon princes, headed by Cadoudal, Pichegru, &c., against the life and authority of Bonaparte, was discovered at Paris, the latter chose to believe that the Duc d'E. was privy to it, although there was not a tittle of evidence to prove this. Perhaps Bonaparte was afraid that the valour and humanity of the last descendant of the great Condé might one day prove dangerous to his power. Be that as it may, he unscrupulously resolved to seize the person of the duke. On the night of the 17th March 1804, the neutral territory of Baden was violated, and the château of Ettenheim surrounded with a body of soldiers and gendarmes. The duke, at first, endeavoured to defend himself; but the force was too great to be opposed, and he, with several friends and domestics, was captured, and carried prisoner to Strasburg, and immediately after to Vincennes. On the 20th of March, he was tried before a courtmartial, consisting of eight officers, and after an examination of five hours, was condemned to death. Half an hour later, the sentence was put into execution. So cruel and audaciously criminal an act has fixed a deep stigma on the character of Bonaparte. M. Dupin has published the records of the trial, and shewn the illegality of the proceedings of the military commission. This illegality was publicly acknowledged by General Hullin, the president of the court. After the Restoration, the bones of the judicially murdered duke were taken up, and interred in the chapel of the castle at Vincennes. ENGINEE'R AND ENGINEERING. Engineering, the business of the engineer, is the art of designing and superintending the execution of works of a constructive character, such as roads, railways, bridges, canals, harbours, docks, works for supplying water to towns, drainage and sewerage works, mining machinery, and the working of metals. It may be divided into two kinds-civil and ENGINEER-ENGINEERS. military. The military engineer is an officer in the service of government, whose duties are principally to construct fortifications, to make surveys for warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage of an army by the construction of roads and bridges; in short, to execute all engineering works of a military nature; but he is also, especially in this country, called upon to undertake many works which more properly belong to the business of the civil engineer, such as the survey of the country-called the Ordnance Survey-the inspection of public works, and, in short, all the duties of a government engineer. given a great impulse to commerce and civilisation which, in their turn, have created the necessity for the numerous and magnificent engineering works of modern times; such as the innumerable railways, roads, and canals that intersect this and foreign countries; the bridges, water-works, docks, harbours, and vessels that facilitate our commerce anes increase our comfort and prosperity. Among the most remarkable of these works may be mentioned the tubular bridges of the St Lawrence and Menal Strait, the Niagara railway suspension bridge, and the electric telegraph system, which covers this country and the seas and countries of Europe, and may, at some future time, connect us with the continents of America, Australia, and India. Among the more celebrated British engineers are the Stephensons, the Rennies, the Brunels, Telford, Smeaton, and Locke. The education of those who would rise to eminence in the profession, must embrace a fair knowledge of pure mathematics and of the mixed sciences of natural philosophy, such as mechanics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, and optics. They should acquire a knowledge of the principles of projections, and should aim at being good draughtsmen and rapid and accurate arithmeticians. The civil engineering profession is subdivided into several sections, according to the special nature of the employment of its members. The railway engineer projects and superintends the execution of railways and all the works in connection with them, such as the alteration of roads and streams, the construction of viaducts, bridges, cuttings, and embankments. The hydraulic engineer constructs the works connected with the supply of water to towns, the filtering of water, its collection in reservoirs, and its distribution through a town or district; the irrigation and drainage of tracts of country; the protection of low lands from inundation, and the use of water as a motive-power. The Engineering is represented in this country by dock and harbour engineer has the management several institutions and societies, the principal of of all works connected with the sea or navigable which is the London Institution of Civil Engineers, waters, such as the construction of piers, break-established in 1818, for facilitating the acquirewaters, docks, harbours, and light-houses. The ment of professional knowledge, and for promoting mechanical engineer is principally concerned in the mechanical philosophy;' there are also many manufacture of machinery, the working of metals, schools and colleges throughout the kingdom in the construction of ships, steamers, cannon, and all which engineering is made a special study. the various structures in which the metals bear a prominent part. Then there is the mining engineer, who discovers minerals and manages mines; there are engineers who are specially engaged in the drainage of towns, and many other less prominent divisions of the profession. In all engineering works, the contractor takes a very important part; he executes the works from the designs, and under the direction and superintendence of the engineer, and on his ability and good management the success of undertakings very materially depends. In conclusion, it may be said that every day opens fresh fields to engineering science and labour; and that as the first beginnings of the art are lost in the obscurity of remote antiquity, so we see no termination to its usefulness and necessity. The more important operations involved in engineering are treated of under such heads as BRIDGES, CANALS, AQUEDUCTS, EMBANKMENTS, TUBULAR BRIDGES, ROADS, RAILWAYS, RIVERS, SUSPENSION BRIDGES, &c. ENGINEERS, THE ROYAL CORPS OF, forms cne component portion of the army of the British empire. The engineering works of antiquity are both A similar corps exists in all regular armies. It is numerous and prominent, many of them remaining the scientific and constructive branch, intrusted while all other traces of their constructers have been with the making and defending of all military swept away. The most notable of the works belong-works, and the attack and conquest of similar works ing to very remote antiquity are the harbours of the Phoenicians, the palaces and sewerage of Nimroud, and the pyramids of Egypt; next in order come the harbours of ancient Greece, the bridge of boats across the Dardanelles, made by Xerxes, to transport his immense army into Europe, and his canal across the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos. The buildings of ancient Rome next claim attention-its theatres, temples, baths, and aqueducts, some of which carried water from distances of more than fifty miles into Rome; its roads, bridges, and drainage-works vie in extent and magnificence with the most celebrated works of modern times. From that period down to the commencement of the 18th c., the most extensive works executed are the canals, embankments, and other hydraulic constructions used by the Dutch for the purposes of inland navigation, and to protect their low lands from the sea; the canals of North Italy, the cathedrals and fortifications of medieval Europe. Civil engineering, as a distinct profession, may be said to have originated, in England, about the middle of the last century; since that time, the improvements in the steam-engine by James Watt, its subsequent application to the railway system by George Stephenson, and its us in navigation, have belonging to an enemy. It is true that civilians are often employed to construct the buildings themselves, at a stated price; but the military engineers make the plans, and are responsible to the country for their efficiency. At the present time, for instance (1861), contractors are at work on fortifications at Portsmouth and elsewhere, but on plans and under orders for which the engineer department of the government is responsible. The Royal Engineers of the United Kingdom form one regiment or corps. The officers, in time of peace, are scattered all over the world. Their service is continuous, unlike that of other branches of the army. There is no half-pay, except on permanent retirement; and no unemployed list. They have much wear and tear of body and mind, and are considered entitled to a competent retiring allowance at an earlier age than other officers. Their regular pay corresponds to the active pay of other officers of the same rank; but they exclu sively receive in addition extra pay, amounting to one half their ordinary pay when on duty at home, and equalling their ordinary pay when employed abroad. There is an establishment of Engineers in each colony, to conduct and superintend all the military buildings and works. The entire force |