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FRONTINUS-FROSINONE.

court. Mazarin, therefore, adopted violent measures. Ou the 26th August 1648, he ordered the president, Potier de Blancmenil, and the councillor, Peter Broussel, to be arrested. The people took up arms, aspersed the Swiss guard, and on the 27th August (la journée des barricades), erected barricades in the streets around the Palais Royal. The court now yielded, repealed several taxes, and promised a better administration of justice. This victory gave parliament courage; those members who continued to keep a sharp look-out on the court measures, and were styled by the adherents of Mazarin frondeurs -i. e., censurers (literally, 'slingers')-formed the majority. The court now resolved to suppress the movement, in which the populace of the capital had also taken part, by force of arms, and, on the 6th January 1649, removed secretly to St Germain, leaving Paris to be blockaded by the Prince of Condé with 7000 men. The parliament, whose cause was now publicly espoused by the Prince of Conti, the Dukes of Longueville, Beaufort, Orleans, Bouillon, Elbeuf, Vendôme, Nemours, the Cardinal De Retz, and the Maréchal de la Mothe, called upon the people to resist, and even negotiated with the stadtholder of the Netherlands for an auxiliary corps. In this critical position, the court, on the 11th March, concluded a compact at Ruel, in which both parties missed their object. After the return of the court to Paris in August, a new turn was given to the contest, the princes of the blood disputing the power with Mazarin. This, on the 18th January 1650, led to the sudden arrest of Condé, Longueville, and Conti. This arbitrary proceeding roused the provinces. Marshal Turenne assumed the title of lieutenant-general of the royal army for the liberation of the princes, united himself with the Archduke Leopold, and took several fortified towns, but was finally completely defeated by Mazarin's troops at Rhetel, on the 15th December. Mazarin returned in triumph to Paris, but found all parties against him, and his removal was insisted upon so urgently, that he was obliged to release the princes, and flee to the Netherlands. A disgraceful system of intrigue was now substituted for force of arms, which totally changed the position of parties, and converted the contest which had begun for the interests of the people into a court cabal. Turenne was gained over by the queen-regent, De Retz by Cardinal Mazarin, and Condé was obliged to flee for safety into Guienne. Meanwhile, Louis XIV., who had now attained his 14th year, endeavoured to induce the Prince of Condé to return; but the latter, mistrusting these overtures, repaired to Bordeaux in 1651, where he had many adherents, whence he commenced a regular war against the court, which might have had dangerous consequences, had not Turenne opposed the prince. On the 2d July 1652, an engagement took place between the two parties in the neighbourhood of Paris. Condé was on the eve of being defeated, when the gates of Paris were opened to him by the courage and zeal of his sister, the Duchess of Longueville, and thus a new turn was given to the contest. Paris itself, weary of these fruitless dissensions, now entered into negotiations with the court, demanding the final removal of Mazarin, who had meanwhile returned. This demand was complied with by Louis XIV., and a general amnesty proclaimed. Condé, who refused to enter into the compact, relying upon an army of 12,000 men placed at his disposal by Charles, Duke of Lorraine, quitted Paris on the 15th October 1652, and repaired to Champagne; and finally, finding no one disposed to take up arms in his cause, entered the Spanish service, for which he was declared a traitor. Soon after, Mazarin returned to Paris, and was again intrusted with the reins of government.

Thus the royal power came forth victorious from this long contest, which, though it seemed to commence for the popular interests, gradually changed into a miserable party strife among the nobles. Compare Ste-Aulaire's Histoire de la Fronde (3 vols., Par. 1827).

FRONTINUS, SEX. JULIUS, a Roman author who flourished in the second half of the first century. In 75 A.D. he was sent to Britain as governor of that island, and obtained a great reputation by his conquest of the Silures, and his vigorous maintenance of the imperial authority. He appears to have been twice consul in the course of his life, and to have held several other important offices. He died about 105 A. D. Several works are attributed to F., only two of which are certainly genuine, the Strategematicon, a treatise on the Art of War, in four books; and the De Aqueductibus Urbis Rome, in two. The best edition of the first is that of Oudendorp (reprinted with emendations in 1779); of the second, that of Dederich (Wesel, 1841). The De Aqueductibus is an important contribution to the history of architecture.

FRO'NTISPIECE, the name generally given to an engraved and decorated title-page of a volume, or an engraving placed opposite the title-page. The term is also sometimes used to denote the front or principal face of a building.

FRONTO, M. CORNELIUS, was born at Cirta, in Numidia, and came to Rome in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, where he soon obtained a high reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Antoninus Pius intrusted to him the education of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, both of whom always retained the warmest admiration of their preceptor. F. gradually rose to the highest offices of the empire, became very wealthy, and died, it is thought, about 170 a. D. Until recently, nothing was known of F. as an author, except from a few fragments of a grammatical treatise (De Differentiis Vocabulorum); but in the year 1814, Angelo Mai discovered in the Ambrosian Library at Milan a palimpsest, which being deciphered, was found to contain a considerable number of F.'s letters with some short essays. These were published by Mai in 1815; and in the following year an edition was published at Berlin by Niebuhr, who wrote a critical preface, and also printed the commentaries of Buttmann and Heindorf. A few years afterwards, Mai found in the library of the Vatican at Rome another palimpsest containing more than 100 of F.'s letters. The result was a new edition of F. by Mai (Rome, 1823), embodying the new discoveries, which was republished at Celle in Germany (1832). The contents of these letters are on the whole unimportant, although they help to confirm the good opinion which history has formed of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius; and the style is vapid and declamatory.

FRO'SCHDORF (originally, Crottendorf), called by the French Frohsdorf, is the name of a village in Lower Austria, rather more than 30 miles from Vienna, and not far from the frontiers of Hungary, on the right bank of the river Leitha. It is cele brated for its splendid castle, which in recent times has acquired a kind of political importance, from having been after 1844 the residence of the Duchess of Angoulême and the rendezvous of the elder Bourbon party. After the death of the duchess it came into the possession of the Comte de Chambord (q. v.), who has greatly beautified the

interior.

FROSINO'NE (the ancient Frusino of the Volscians) is a town of Italy, in the States of the

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FROST-BITE-FROUDE

Church, built on the slope of a hill above the junction of the river Cossa with the Sacco, about 48 miles east-south-east of Rome, on the high-road between Rome and Naples. It is the capital of a delegation of the same name, which is notorious for brigandage. The only interesting edifices are the palace of the papal delegate and the remains of an ancient amphitheatre. The costumes of F. are among the most admired of Italy. Pop. about 8000.

FROST-BITE is caused by cold depressing the vitality of a part or the whole of the body. The frost-bitten part is at first blue and puffy, from the current of blood through it being suspended; then, should the cold be continued, it becomes pallid, and the painful tingling gives place to numbness and insensibility, and finally to actual death or mortification. Although a sudden violent application of cold may cause death of the tissues, by reducing the temperature to a degree incompatible with animal life, the most common cause of the destructive effects of frost-bite is undoubtedly the excessive reaction which occurs on sudden removal of the cold, or the application of heat; this is especially the case with moist cold.

Baron Larrey believed that 'cold was merely the predisposing cause of frost-bite, and mentions that after the battle of Eylau the French soldiers did not experience any painful sensations during the severe cold varying from 10° to 15° below zero of Reaumur's thermometer; but when the temperature rose from 18° to 20, they felt the first sensations of cold, and applied for succour, complaining of acute pains in their feet, and of numbness, heaviness, and prickings in the extremities. The parts were scarcely swolien, and of an obscure red colour. In some cases, a slight redness was perceptible about the roots of the toes, and on the back of the foot; in others, the toes were destitute of motion, sensibility, and warmth, being already black, and, as it were, dried.' Those of the men who indulged in the warmth of the bivouac fires suffered from frost-bite in much larger proportion than their more hardy comrades.

In this country, most cases of frost-bite are very trifling, the most common being Chilblains (q. v.). Occasionally, in severe winters, more severe cases present themselves at the hospitals in the persons of houseless, ill-nourished unfortunates, whose constitutions have in many instances been enfeebled by spirit-drinking.

As the

The treatment of frost-bite consists in coaxing back by degrees the vitality of the part; this is most prudently effected by friction, at first with snow, then with water at ordinary temperature, no warmth being applied for some time. coldness subsides, the painful tingling returns, then redness and heat; in a short time, the latter will be above the natural standard, and if not moderated, the part will inflame, and perhaps mortify. It is well to remember that the part need not have boen actually frozen for these symptoms to occur. The person with languid circulation who, coming home with cold wet feet, places them before the fire, or in warm water, may be 'frost-bitten' to all mtents and purposes.

FROTH-FLY, FROTH-HOPPER, FROGFLY, or FROG-HOPPER, the common names of those insects of which the young-larvæ and pupæ --are found in a frothy exudation on plants. They orm the family Cercopida of the order Homoptera, and are allied to Aphides, and still more nearly to Cicadas and Lantern-flies. The larvae and pupa differ little in appearance from the perfect insect except that it possesses wings, which are four in

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FROZEN STRAIT-FRUIT.

The

peculiar albuminous ferment which exists in the juice of many ripening fruits.

FRUGO'NI, CARLO INNOCENZO, a much admired

In 1716 he

Slows of the Clouds; and two years later, The N-mesis of Faith, a work in which the solemnity and sadness of religious scepticism are relieved by a singularly tender and earnest humanity. book was written with great and even startling and versatile Italian poet, was born at Genoa in power, and not only cost F. his fellowship, but 1692, and educated for the church. also a situation to which he had just been appointed began to teach rhetoric at Brescia, at which time in Tasmania. F., for the next few years, employed he had already acquired the reputation of being an himself in writing for Fraser's Magazine and the elegant writer of prose and verse, both in Latin and Italian. In 1719 he taught in Genoa, and Westminster Review. In 1856 appeared the first two 7ols. of his History of England from the Fall of subsequently at Bologna. At the court of Parma, Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth, and in 1858 the through the patronage of the Cardinal Bentivoglio, third and fourth. The peculiarity of this work he was appointed poet laureate, the stated and egarded as a history, consists in the use it makes prescribed compositions of which post were highly of, and the value it places upon, the state docu- uncongenial to his original and discursive muse; ments of the time. The study of these documents nevertheless the Dukes of Parma shewed particular has led F. to reverse not a few historical verdicts, the death of Duke Antonio, and the accession of favour to the poet, who returned to Genoa on especially that which has been passed upon Henry VIII.; but his decisions have by no means been XII. released F. from his spiritual vows, which the Spanish Infante. In 1733, Pope Clement generally, or even to any large extent, acquiesced had at all times been highly distasteful to him. in by other historical critics. The intellectual vigour and originality of the author's views and A grand ode, in celebration of the capture of Oran sentiments, and the mingled splendour and strength by the Spaniards, and some other poetic addresses to the king and queen of Spain, reinstalled the of his style, have, nevertheless, excited an extraordinary interest in the volumes. poet in his former post at the Parmese court. He died in 1768. His numerous writings were pub lished at Parma, 1779, and a complete edition at Lucca, 1779. A selection from his works appeared at Brescia, 1782.

FROZEN STRAIT, a passage, if passage it can be called, leading north-westward from Fox's Channel towards Repulse Bay. It separates Southampton Island, in the north of Hudson's Bay, from Melville Peninsula, which stretches northward to the strait of the Fury and Hecla. Its narrowness, for it is only fifteen miles wide, renders it, even in the 66th degree of latitude, almost constantly impervious to navigation.

FRUCTED. Trees when represented as bearing fruit are said heraldically to be fructed.

FRUCTIDOR (Eng. 'fruit-month') was the name given in the republican calendar of France to the period extending from the 18th of August to the 16th of September. The 18th Fructidor of the year 5 (or the 4th September 1797) is celebated as the day on which Barras, Rewbel, and Lepaux, members of the Directory, by a coup d'état, saved the republic from the machinations of the Royalists, who had got the upper hand in the Council of Five Hundred. The execution of the coup d'état was intrusted to General Augereau.

FRUCTIFICATION (Lat. the producing of fruit), a term frequently employed in cryptogamic botany, sometimes to denote the whole reproductive system, and sometimes the fruit itself.

FRUCTOSE, or FRUIT-SUGAR, known also as INVERTED SUGAR, occurs in association with glucose, or (according to the recent investigations of Buignet) with cane-sugar in many ripe acidulous fruits. In its composition, and in most of its properties, it closely resembles glucose, from which, however, it differs (1), in being incapable of crystallisation; and (2), in its action on polarised light; while both glucose (or grape-sugar) and canesugar exert a right-handed rotation upon a ray of polarised light, this variety of sugar exerts a lefthanded rotation; and hence the term inverted has been applied to it.

in phanerogamous plants, is a mature ovary conFRUIT (fructus), in the botanical use of the term, taining a seed or seeds; and in cryptogamous plants, Other parts of the flower, most frequently the calyx, a spore-case (sporangium or theca) containing spores. sometimes remain after flowering is over, undergo a further development, become incorporated with the ovary, and form part of the fruit. The development of the fruit in phanerogamous plants depends upon the fertilisation of the ovules, and when this has not taken place, the flow of sap to the ovary usually soon ceases, and it drops off with all the other remains of the flower; although there are excep tional cases of seedless fruits, as seedless oranges, bananas, grapes, barberries, &c., in which, however, it may be supposed that fertilisation takes place, and that unknown causes afterwards operate to prevent the development of the seed, and to direct the flow of sap more exclusively to the nourishment of the succulent parts, which are thus increased and improved. This supposition is rendered more probable by the circumstance that the production of seedless fruits appears to be at least sometimes a consequence of age and diminished vigour in trees.

The fruit, like the ovary, may be composed of one carpel, or of more than one. But the fruit some times differs from the ovary, through the development of some of the parts, and the non-development or obliteration of others; so that an ovary with several cells may be converted into a one-celled fruit; and of several ovules, all but one may become abortive, so as to produce a one-seeded fruit. Thus the three-celled ovary of the oak and of the hazel, with two ovules in each cell, becomes, by the nondevelopment of two cells and five ovules, a fruit with one seed; and the two-celled ovary of the ash, and the three-celled ovary of the cocoa-nut, likewise produce one-celled and one-seeded fruits. Sometimes also false dissepiments are formed, which produce in the fruit a greater number of cells than existed in the ovary. More generally, however, the fruit agrees with the ovary in the number of its cells and seeds. But not unfrequently, the struc

The composition of fructose is represented by the formula CH 20 2 When boiled with dilute acids, fructose combines with the elements of water, and passes into glucose. A similar passage of this substance into glucose sometimes Occurs spontaneously, as is seen in the gradual crystallisation | ture of the fruit is rendered comparatively difficult of the sugar in dried fruits.

It appears to be procurable only from cane-sugar (or sucrose) by the action either of acids or of a

to determine, through the development of succulent matter or pulp, sometimes in one part and sometimes in another.

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All that is external to the proper integuments of A classification of the different kinds of fruits is the seed in the ripe fruit is called the pericarp (Gr. extremely difficult, although they afford characters peri, around; and karpos, fruit); and this, which of great importance in descriptive and systematic varies extremely in size and other characters, usually botany. A convenient primary division of fruits is consists of three layers, the outermost of which is into those which are formed from one flower, and called the epicarp (Gr. epi, upon); the middle one, those which are formed by incorporation of the the mesocarp (Gr. mesos, middle), or sometimes the ovaries of many flowers. Fruits formea from one sarcocarp (Gr. sarx, flesh); and the innermost, the flower, by far the most numerous of these two endocarp (Gr. endon, within). These parts exhibit classes, are divided into apocarpous and syncarpous, great variety, but it is generally the mesocarp which or into apocarpous, aggregate, and syncarpous. Apo becomes succulent or fleshy, as in the peach, cherry, carpous fruits are formed of one carpel, and are plum, and other drupes; and in the pear, apple, and either dry or succulent, dehiscent or indehiscent, other pomes. In drupes, or stone-fruits, the endocarpone-seeded or many-seeded. Aggregate fruits, someis the hard shell which immediately covers the seed;

in pomes, it is the scaly lining of the seed-bearing cavities in the centre; in both drupes and pomes, the epicarp is the outer skin. So in melons, cucumbers, and gourds, the succulent part is the mesocarp, greatly developed, with a thin epicarp and a thinner endocarp. In the orange, however, and all of that family, the epicarp and mesocarp together form the rind, whilst the pulpy cells belong to the endocarp. In berries, as the gooseberry, grape, &c., the pulpy matter does not belong to any of the layers of the pericarp, but is formed from the placentas of the seeds.

When the fruit, as the fully developed ovary, is considered as a modified leaf or leaves, the epicarp is viewed as representing the epidermis of the lower surface, the endocarp the epidermis of the upper surface, and the mesocarp the substance (parenchyma) of the leaf. The midrib of the leaf is traced in the dorsal suture of the fruit or of each component carpel, and the ventral suture is formed by its folding together and the conjunction of its edges. The dorsal and ventral sutures are very obvious in the pods of pease, beans, &c.; and even in fruits formed of several carpels intimately combined, they often become very apparent when the ripened fruit opens to allow the escape of the seeds. The opening or dehiscence (Lat. dehisco, to open) of fruits takes place in various ways; thus, the fruit sometimes resolves itself into its original carpels by separation through the dissepiments, which divide into two plates forming the sides of the valves, and the carpels further open by their sutures; the pericarp sometimes splits at once by the dorsal sutures of the carpels; sometimes it divides transversely, and throws off a lid; sometimes it opens more partially by pores, &c. Many fruits, however, are indehiscent, some of which are fruits having a very hard pericarp, as nuts, and some are fruits having a soft pericarp and much pulp. The decay of the pericarp is in these cases necessary to the liberation of the seeds, unless when this is accomplished by such means as the fruit becoming the food of animals, by which also the seeds of plants are often widely distributed. The decay of the pericarp seems intended, in many cases, to provide the first nourishment for the young plants which spring from the seeds.

times included among the apocarpous, are formed of several or many free carpels; sometimes dry, some. times succulent; sometimes arranged on a convex or elevated receptacle; which becomes succulent in the strawberry, and constitutes the edible part of the fruit; sometimes within a concave receptacle covered by the enlarged tube of the calyx, as in the rose. Syncarpous fruits are formed of several carpels, intimately united in their mature state, so as to form a berry, capsule, pome, silique, &c. Syncarpous fruits sometimes so completely resolve themselves into their original carpels, that these may be regarded as becoming separate achenia. Fruits formed by incorporation of the ovaries of many flowers (collective or anthocarpous fruits) are sometimes dry, as the cones of firs; sometimes succulent, as the pine-apple, the mulberry, and the fig. For further notice of different kinds of fruits, we must refer to particular articles in which they are described, as achenium, berry, capsule, drupe, nut, pome, pod, silique, &c., and to articles on the plants which produce them.

A few plants, particularly the Conifera and Cycadaceae, produce seeds really naked or destitute of pericarp. Many other seeds were formerly often described as naked, in which the pericarp exists intimately incorporated with the seed, as the weeds of grasses, Boraginea, Labiata, Umbelliferu, &. Their real nature is often made apparent by some trace of the style.

The production of ripe fruit is exhaustiv to the energies of a plant, and plants ordinarily annual may be preserved in life for several years by preventing it. Very young fruit-trees generr fail to bring fruit to perfection, and the first de wers of melons and gourds are often, for a similar reason, abortive; whilst, on the contrary, any cucumstance that favours an accumulation of sap in particular season, tends to render fruit-trees unusu ily productive in the next, as when the whole blossoms of a year are killed by frost, or when, from the coldness of the previous summer, flower-buds have not been formed in abundance. Whilst the vital energies of a plant are directed mainly towards the increase of its size, flower-buds are sparingly formed or not at all, as is often the case with fruit-trees growing very luxuriantly, and various modes are adopted to cause the production of flower-buds and of fruit by checking this luxuriance of growth, as by root-pruning, by cutting into the stem of wall-trees to a moderate depth, or by taking off portions of the bark of the stem. Grafting (q. v.) is also of use in this respect, as well as for the propagation of improved varieties of fruit-trees, the qualities of which would, in all probability, not be found exactly the same in their offspring by seed.

In a very immature state, fruits are in general green and soft, and decompose carbonic acid gas in the sunlight, absorbing the carbon, and setting free the oxygen, like leaves and other green parts of plants. As they advance towards maturity, some of them become externally dry and hard, and cease to perform by their surface these functions of

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FRUIT.

vegetation; others, as they become more succulent, change their colour, and instead of absorbing carbon and liberating oxygen, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and exhale carbonic acid.

It would not be easy to enumerate the peculiar substances which are produced in fruits. Different parts of the same fruit are often extremely different from one another, as the milk and the kernel of the cocoa-nut, its hard shell, and its fibrous husk. Seeds are indeed generally very different in all their qualities from the pericarp or the pulp by which they are surrounded, and the integuments of the seed often not less different from the embryo, of all which a ready illustration may be found in the apple or the grape. The most different chemical products of vegetation are sometimes to be found in different parts of the same fruit, giving them the most varied qualities, as wholesome and poisonous; the succulent part of the fruit, from the kernel of which strychnia is obtained, is said to be harmless, and the seeds of plums contain so much hydrocyanic acid, that to eat many of them would be dangerous; the capsule of the poppy yields opium, but its seed contains nothing of the kind, and is bland and nutritious, abounding in a wholesome fixed oil. The value of fruits to man-which may safely be asserted to exceed that of all other parts of plants

sometimes, as in the corn-plants, chiefly depends on the farinaceous matter of their seeds, containing starch, gluten, &c.; sometimes, as in the banana and bread-fruit, on the starchy matter of the pulpy part; sometimes, as in nuts, on fixed oils; sometimes, as in many succulent fruits, on sugar and various acids, with gum, pectine, &c. Other fruits, or parts of the same fruits, are valuable for the volatile oils which they yield, and for peculiar principles capable of application to medicinal and other uses, or making them capable of being used as condiments, perfumes, &c. Coffee, cocoa, pepper, vanilla, and many other articles of commerce, are obtained from fruits.

Whilst some fruits are of the highest value as articles of food, others are generally regarded rather as articles of luxury; yet the abundance of succulent fruits in tropical climates is a bountiful provision for real wants, contributing much to the health of the inhabitants. The coolness of succulent fruits renders them peculiarly grateful amidst the heat of the tropics; their temperature, when newly gathered, being much below that of the surrounding atmosphere.

Cultivated Fruits.-In its popular use, the term fruit sometimes has almost the same signification as in the language of botanical science; sometimes it is employed as almost exclusively designating the edible succulent fruits. We cannot attempt an enumeration of edible fruits; many will be found noticed in other botanical articles; we can only here observe that they belong to many and very different natural orders, both of endogenous and exogenous, but chiefly of exogenous plants. We propose, however, to conclude this article by an enumeration of the principal cultivated succulent fruits, including those which are important as articles of food or of

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Nuts, and along with them some fruits, which although not botanically nuts, resemble them in qualities and uses, will be noticed in a separate article.

Chemical Composition of Fruits.-Our principal knowledge of the composition of different kinds of fruit is due to the recent investigations of Fresenius, which are published in the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie for 1857. In that memoir, he gives the results of upwards of fifty analyses of different fruits, including gooseberries, cu rants, strawberries, raspberries, mulberries, grapes, cherries, plums, apricots, peaches, apples, and pears. We select the following analyses as representing the composition of some of our most important

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