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GEIBEL GEJER.

be cast into hell-fire [Gehenna]; where their worm Berlin Reform Society. Besides sermons, pamphlets dieth not, and the fire is not quenched.'

GEIBEL, EMANUEL, one of the most popular of the living poets of Germany, was born at Lübeck, on the 18th October 1815. After receiving the rudiments of education at the high school of his native town, he completed his studies at the university of Bonn. In 1836, he went to Berlin, where he became acquainted with Chamisso, Gaudy, and Kugler. Two years afterwards, he obtained a tutor ship in the family of the Russian ambassador at Athens, where he continued to prosecute his scientific and poetical studies. On his return to Lübeck in 1840, he worked up the material he had collected in Greece, and became, in addition, a diligent student of Italian and Spanish literature. Soon after the publication of his first poems, a pension of 300 thalers a year was bestowed upon him by the king of Prussia. G. now resided alternately at St Goar on the Rhine with Freiligrath, at Stuttgart, Hanover, Berlin, and Lübeck; till, in the spring of 1852, he was appointed professor of aesthetics in the university of Munich by the king of Bavaria. In conjunction with Curtius, he published his Classische Studien (Bonn, 1840), containing translations from the Greek poets. These were followed in the same year by his Gedichte (Berlin, 1840, 28th edit. 1852), the melody, artistic beauty, and decidedly religious tone of which, made them at once great favourites with the Germans. The results of his Spanish studies were the Spanischen Volkslieder und Romanzen (Berlin, 1843), which were followed by the Spanische Liederbuch (Berlin, 1852), published in conjunction with Paul Heyse. In 1857 appeared his tragedy of Brunehilde. His poems are distinguished by fervour and truth of feeling, richness of fancy, and a certain pensive melancholy, and have procured him a popularity-especially among cultivated women-such as no poet of Germany has enjoyed since the days of Uhland.

GEIGER, ABRAHAM, rabbi in Breslau, was born at Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, May 24, 1810. According to old rabbinical practice, his teachers were his father and elder brother, till he reached the age of eleven. After that, having received a more regular education for some years, he went, in 1829, to the university of Heidelberg, and shortly afterwards to that of Bonn. While engaged there in the study of philosophy and of the Oriental languages, he gained a prize for an essay on the Jewish sources of the Koran, which at a later period appeared in print under the title, Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen? (Bonn, 1833). In November 1832, he was called as rabbi to Wiesbaden, and there, under the impulse to the scientific study of Judaism which proceeded from Berlin, he devoted himself zealously to Jewish theology, especially in its relation to practical life. In 1835, he joined with several able men in editing the Zeitschrift für Jüdische Theologie. The spirit of inquiry, however, with which he discussed prevalent opinions and usages, brought him into collision with the conservative Jews, especially after 1838, when he became assessor of the rabbinate at Breslau; but the great majority of educated men in the sect continued attached to him. It was he who gave the first impulse to the celebrated assemblies of the rabbis, three of which have been held since 1844 at Brunswick, Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, and Breslau. At the second of these he was vice-president, and president at the third. Though G. thus took an active part in the reform movement, he could not abandon his historical point of view, which made him unwilling to break entirely with the past; and therefore he refused a call to be preacher to the

198

and numerous contributions to the above-mentioned
which are distinguished by thoroughness of investi
periodical, G. published some historical monographs.
gation and many-sided learning. Among these may
be mentioned the Melo Chofnajim (Berlin, 1840), of
Joseph Salomo del Medigo, and the Hite Haamanim
France. His Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der
(Berlin, 1847), on the exegetical school of Northern
Mischna (1845) also is of great value to the Oriental
philologist. In 1850 appeared the first number
of Studien on Moses-Ben-Maimon; and in 1851,
a translation of the Divan of the Castilian Abu'l-
Hassan Juda ha-Levi, accompanied by a biography
Besides
of the poet and explanatory remarks.
some specimens of Jewish medieval apologetics,
contributed to Breslauer's Jahrbuch in 1851-1852,
G. has more recently published a work on the
original text, and the translations of the Bible in
(Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer
their dependence on the development of Judaism
Abhängigkeit von der inneren Entwickelung des
Judenthums, Breslau, 1857).

GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN, a
famous pulpit-orator of Germany, was born at
Schaffhausen, 16th March 1455; studied at Freiburg
and Basel, where he obtained his degree of D.D.;
and in 1478 became preacher in the cathedral of
Strasburg, where he died, 10th March 1510. G.
ranks among the most learned and original men of
his age. His sermons, usually composed in Latin
and delivered in German, are marked by great
eloquence and earnestness; nor do they disdain the
aids of wit, sarcasm, and ridicule. Vivid pictures
of life, warmth of feeling, and a bold, even rough
morality, are their leading characteristics. In fact,
G.'s ethical zeal often urged him to a pungency of
satire hardly in keeping with modern views of the
dignity of the pulpit, but quite congruous with
the taste of his own age. His style is vigorous,
free, and lively, and in many respects he may be
regarded as a sort of predecessor of Abraham a
become very rare, may be mentioned Narrenschiff
Of his writings, which have now
(Lat., Strasb. 1511; Ger. by Pauli, 1520), comprising
412 sermons on Sebastian Brandt's (q. v.) Narren-
schiff; Das Irrig Schaf (Strasb. 1510); Der Seelen
und Busswirkung (Augsb. 1511); Das Buch Gran-
Paradiess (Strasb. 1510); Das Schiff der Pönitenz.
atapfel (Strasb. 1511); Christliche Pilgerschaft zum
(Strasb. 1515); and Das Buch Von Sünden des
Ewigen Vaterland (Basel, 1512); Das Evangelienbuch
Mundes (Strasb. 1518). Compare Ammon's G. Von
Kaisersberg's Leben, Lehren und Predigten (Erl
1826), and Meick's Joh. G. Von Kaisersberg. Sein
Leben und Seine Schriften in einer Auswahl (3 vols.,.
Fkf. 1829).

Sancta-Clara.

GEJER, ERIC GUSTAF, one of the most distinguished historians of Sweden, was born at Ransätter,. in the Swedish læn of Wermland, in 1783. He was sent, at the age of 16, to the university of Upsala; and in 1803 he competed successfully for the prize which was that year awarded by the Academy of Stockholm for the best essay on the life and character of the great Swedish administrator, Sten Sture. This was the turning-point of his life, for from this period he began to devote himself with zealous industry to the study of the history of his native country. His assiduity was rewarded by his speedy nomination to a post in the Chamber of the National Archives, and in 1810 he was elected assistant to Fant, the professor of history in the university of Upsala, and in 1817, on the death of the latter, he succeeded to his chair. G.'s early lectures were listened to with the

657

GELA-GELATIGENOUS TISSUES AND GELATINE.

Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal residence, G. being committed to the government of his brother Hiero. After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian wars in Sicily, it ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B. C., removed the inhabitants to a town in the neighbourhood, which he had founded, and to which he gave his own name. Its site is generally believed to be occupied by Terra Nova, at the mouth of the river now known as Fiume di Terranova.

GELATI'GENOUS TISSUES AND GELA

TINE. The gelatigenous tissues are substances caseine) in containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, resembling the proteine-bodies (albumen, fibrine, and oxygen, and sulphur; but differing from them in containing more nitrogen and less carbon and sulphur. They consist of two principal varieties, viz., those which yield gluten (or ordinary gelatine) and those which yield chondrine.

profoundest interest, both by his students and the public at large, who crowded to his lecture-room; but at a subsequent period of his teaching, his popularity diminished in proportion to the increased profundity of his views; while the suspicion that he harboured sceptical notions in regard to the Trinity, brought him into disfavour with a certain portion of the community. These suspicions led to his denunciation to the university authorities; but the examination to which the charges against him gave rise terminated in his acquittal, and were even followed by the offer of a bishopric, which, however, he declined. G. exercised a marked influence on the poetic no less than the historical literature of Sweden, and according to the testimony of his countrymen, his Sista Skalden, Vikingen, Odalbonden, and other heroic pieces, place him in the foremost rank of Swedish poets. He and his friends Adlerbeth, Tegner, and Nikander, adhered to the Gothic' school of poetry, which owed its origin to the Society of the Goths,' which they and several of their friends established as early as 1810, boiling with water, from the organic matter of bone Gluten is obtained by more or less prolonged when they brought out in connection with it a (the osseine of Frémy), from tendons, skin, cellular magazine entitled the Iduna, in which first appeared tissue, white fibrous tissue, the air-bladder and several of G.'s best poems, and among other produc-scales of fishes, calves' feet, hartshorn, &c.; while tions of merit, the early cantos of Tegner's Frithiof Great as is the value of G.'s historical works, he unfortunately did not complete any one of the vast undertakings which he planned. Thus, for instance, of the Svea Rike's Häfder, or Records of Sweden, which were to have embraced the history of his native country from mythical ages to the present time, he finished only the introductory volume. His next great work, Svenska Folkets Historia, which was intended to form one of the series of European histories, edited by Leo and Uckert, was not carried

beyond the death of Queen Christina; yet incomplete as they are, these works rank among the most valuable contributions to Swedish history. To G. was intrusted the task of examining and editing the papers which Gustavus III. had bequeathed to the university of Upsala, with the stipulation that they were not to be opened for fifty years after his death. In fulfilment of his charge, G. arranged these papers in a work, which appeared in 1843 under the title of Gustaf III.'s efterlemnada Papper, and which, from the worthless nature of the contents, disappointed the expectations of the nation, who had been led to hope that their publication would reveal state secrets of importance. During the last ten years of his life, G. took an active part in politics; but although his political writings possess great merit, the very versatility of his powers diverted him from applying them methodically to the complete elaboration of any one great object. G. was known to his countrymen as a musician and composer of no mean order. He lived on terms of friendly intercourse with Bernadotte, and his numerous letters to the king form part of the Samlade Skrifter, or collective works, which have been published since his death by his son, who has appended to this edition, which was completed in 1853, an interesting biographical sketch of his distinguished father. G. died in 1847.

GELA, in ancient times, a very important town, on the southern coast of Sicily, on the river of the same name. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, 690 B. C. Its rapid prosperity may be inferred from the circumstance, that as early as the year 582 B. C., Agrigentum was founded by a colony from Gela. After Cleander had made himself tyrant in the year 505 B. C., the colony reached its highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and

chondrine is similarly obtained from the permanent cartilages, from bone-cartilage before ossification, from enchondromatous tumours, &c.

above-named tissues.

such in the animal body, but is in all cases the result
Neither gluten nor chondrine appears to exist as
of the prolonged action of boiling water on the
Recherches Chimiques sur les Os, in the Ann. de Chim.
Frémy's analyses (see his
et de Phys., 1855, vol. xliii., p. 51) shew that osseine
is isomeric with the gluten which it yields, and
further, that the amount of gluten is precisely the
same as that of the osseine which yields it.
osseine and the gluten yielded by it as determined
The following table exhibits the composition of
by Frémy, and that of chondrine as determined by

Mulder:

Carbon,
Hydrogen,.
Nitrogen,

Oxygen with a little Sulphur,

[blocks in formation]

Gluten, when perfectly pure and dry, is a tough, translucent, nearly colourless substance, devoid of odour and taste. It swells when placed in cold water, and loses its translucency; but in boiling water it dissolves, and forms a viscid fluid, which on cooling forms a jelly. A watery solution containing only 1 per cent. of gluten, gelatinises on cooling. This property is destroyed both by very prolonged boiling and by the action of concentrated acetic acid. Gluten is insoluble in alcohol and in ether.

A solution of gluten is abundantly precipitated by solutions of corrosive sublimate and of bichloride of platinum, as well as by infusion of galls, of which the active principle is tannin or tannic acid (the terms being synonymous). Tannic acid produces, even in very dilute solutions, a copious yellow or buff-coloured precipitate of tannate of gluten. The gelatigenous tissues unite in a similar manner with tannin; they extract it from its watery solutions, and form compounds with it which resist the action of putrefaction. It is thus that hides are converted into Leather (q. v.). The tests which we have mentioned also precipitate albumen, but gluten may be distinguished from albumen by its not being thrown down (as is the case with albumen) by the addition of ferro-cyanide of potassium together with a little acetic acid. The gelatinising property also serves to distinguish gluten when it amounts to 1 per cent. or more of the solution.

On exposure to the atmosphere, gluten becomu

GELATIGENOUS TISSUES GELATINE.

more rapidly putrid than almost any other animal The general method adopted with skin-parings or substance. Under the influence of oxydising agents, it yields the same products as the proteine-bodies; treated with the mineral acids or with alkalies, it yields Glycocine (q. v.)-known also as glycine, glycocoll, and sugar of gelatine-Leucine (q. v.), and other products.

Isinglass, which is prepared from the air-bladder of the sturgeon, &c., when boiled with water, furnishes gluten in a nearly pure state. Glue and size are two well known forms of impure gluten or gelatine.

Chondrine resembles gluten in its physical properties, and especially in its property of gelatinising. It differs, however, slightly from it in chemical composition (see the above table), and in its behaviour towards reagents. For instance, acetic acid, alum, and the ordinary metallic salts of silver, copper, lead, &c., which produce no apparent effect on a solution of gluten, throw down a precipitate from a solution of chondrine; while, on the other hand, corrosive sublimate, which precipitates gluten freely, merely induces a turbidity in a solution of chondrine. We do not know much regarding the physiological relations of these substances. Gluten (according to Scherer) usually exists in the juice of the spleen, but in no other part of the healthy animal body; it is sometimes found in the blood in cases of leucocythæmia, in pus, and in the expressed juice of cancerous tumours. Chondrine has been found in pus. The gelatigenous tissues rank low in the scale of organisation, and their uses are almost entirely of a physical character. Thus they form strong points of connection for muscles (the tendons), they moderate shocks by their elasticity (the cartilages), they protect the body from rapid changes of temperature by their bad conducting power (the skin), and they are of service through their transparency (the cornea).

GELATINE, in Technology. This term, although usually applied to only one variety of the substance, obtained by dissolving the soluble portion of the gelatinous tissues of animals, nevertheless properly belongs also to ISINGLASS and GLUE, which are modifications of the same material. Vegetable jelly is also analogous, and will be mentioned under this head.

Gelatine and glue signify the more or less pure and carefully prepared jelly of mammalian animals, but the term isinglass is only applied to certain gelatinous parts of fishes, which from their exceeding richness in gelatine, are usually merely dried and used without any other preparation than that of minute division for the purpose of facilitating their

action.

GELATINE (proper) is prepared for commercial purposes from a variety of animal substances, but chiefly from the softer parts of the hides of oxen and calves and the skins of sheep, such as the thin portion which covers the belly, the ears, &c.; also from bones and other parts of animals.

One of the best, if not the best of the varieties of gelatine manufactured in Great Britain, is that made by Messrs Cox of Gorgie, near Edinburgh, which is remarkable for its great purity and strength, or gelatinising power; they call it 'sparkling' gelatine from its beautiful bright transparency, and its purification is effected by certain processes which they have patented. The materials they use are carefully selected portions of ox and calf hides. Another preparation, made by Mr Mackay of Edinurgh (pharmaceutical chemist), is deserving of special mention, as it is prepared with the greatest care from calves'-feet, and is especially adapted for invalids. It is made on a limited scale, and only for a few leading chemists.

hide-clippings, is first to wash the pieces very carefully; they are then cut into small pieces and placed in a weak solution of caustic soda for a week o ten days, the solution being kept moderately warni by means of steam-pipes. When this process of digestion has been sufficiently carried on, the pieces of skin are then removed into an air-tight chamber lined with cement, and here they are kept for a time, determined according to the skill of the manufacturer and the kind of material employed, at a temperature of 70° F. They are next transferred to revolving cylinders supplied with an abundance of clean cold water, and afterwards are placed still wet in another chamber lined with wood, in which they are bleached and purified by exposure to the fumes of burning sulphur; they next receive their final washing with cold water, which removes the sulphurous acid. The next operation is to squeeze them as dry as possible, and transfer them to the gelatinising pots, which are large earthen vessels, enclosed in wooden cases, made steam-tight. Water is poured in with the pieces, and kept at a high temperature by means of the steam in the cases surrounding the pots.

By this means the gelatine is quite dissolved out of the skin, and is strained off whilst still hot; it is poured out in thin layers, which as soon as they are sufficiently cooled and consolidated, are cut into small plates, usually oblong, and laid on nets, stretched horizontally, to dry. The cross-markings observable on the plates of gelatine, in the shops, are the marks left by the meshes of the nets.

Another process, introduced by Mr Swineburne, consists in treating pieces of calf-skin by water alone, without the soda and sulphur processes; the pieces, after simple washing, being transferred at once to the pots to be acted upon by the steam; undoubtedly, this is the purest, but the expense of preparing it prevents its general use. Inferior gelatine is made from bones and other parts of animals, and it was stated by an eminent authority, that in Paris the enormous number of rats which are occasionally killed in the sewers and abattoirs, after being deprived of their skins, which are reserved for other purposes, are all used by the gelatine-makers. These materials are placed in cages of wire, which are placed in steam-tight boxes, where they are submitted to the direct action of steam of 223° F., but at a low pressure; and cold water, supplied by another pipe through the upper part of the box, is allowed to flow slowly and percolate through the contents of the cage, the water and condensed steam descend to the bottom charged with gelatine, and are drawn off by a stopcock placed there for the purpose.

The French manufacturers succeed better than any others in clarifying these inferior gelatines, and they rarely make any others; they run their plates out very thin, which gives them greater transparency and apparent freedom from colour; and they colour them with most brilliant colours, and form very fine-rolled sheets, tempting the eye with an appearance of great delicacy and purity, which would at once disappear if the material were made up into the thicker plates of the British

manufacturers.

The purity of gelatine may be very easily tested; thus: pour upon dry gelatine a small quantity of boiling water, if pure it will form a thickish gluey colourless solution, free from smell; but if made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour, and have a yellow gluey consistency. No article manufactured requires such careful selection of material and such nice and cleanly manipulation to insure a good marketable character; and those

659

GELATINE.

anxious for purity should avoid all artificially that this combination, however, is threadlike in coloured varieties, however temptingly got up, unless they are required for merely decorative purposes and not for food. For the value of gelatine as food, see DIET.

ISINGLASS (supposed to be derived from the German Hausenblase, bladder of the sturgeon), the Ichthyocolla (ichthus, a fish; kolla, glue) of the classical and scientific writers, was formerly obtained only from the common sturgeon (accipenser sturio), and consisted of the dried air-bladder of the animal. The necessities of modern commerce have, however, led to the discovery, that the same part in many other fishes forms good isinglass; and instead of Russia, as formerly, being almost the only producing country, we have now large quantities from South America, chiefly imported from Maranham, some from the East Indies, the Hudson's Bay Territory, New York, and, owing to Professor Owen calling the attention of the Canadian Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851 to the subject, it is now brought in considerable quantities and of excellent quality from Canada, where it is likely to prove a source of profitable industry.

its arrangement, and that the crossing threads form a fine net-work through the fluid, which, in falling, carries down all floating substances, which, by their presence, render the liquid cloudy; hence its great value in clarifying beer and other liquids. For this reason isinglass, which has been found the best gelatine for the purpose, is very largely consumed by brewers.

Isinglass, strictly speaking, is not gelatine, but its only value is from the excessive proportion of gelatine held in the tissues of the organ which yields it, greatly enhanced by the ease with which it is abstracted from the membrane when compared with the complicated process necessary for separating and purifying the gelatine from the skins, &c., of other animals. When separated, however, the substances are identical in composition, and, if pure, are undistinguishable from each other.

Besides the substances mentioned as yielding gelatine, formerly hartshorn shavings were used, and ivory turnings and saw-dust are still em. ployed, both, however, chiefly for dietetic purposes for invalids; and various kinds of animal food are valued for the abundance of gelatine they contain, as the Trepang and Beche de Mer (species of Holothuria), sharks' fins, fish-maws, ray-skins, elephant hide, rhinoceros hide, and the softer parts, all of which are luxuries amongst the Chinese, Japanese, Siamese, Malays, &c. Turtle-shells, or the upper and lower parts of the shield (carapace and plastron), constitute the callipash and callipee of the epicure, and form, in the hands of the expe rienced cook, a rich gelatinous soup. The fleshy Accipenser Guldenstadtii. | parts of the turtle, calves' head and feet, and many

The commercial varieties of this material are numerous, and a thorough knowledge of them can only be obtained by considerable personal acquaintance with them; therefore, their names only are given, with those of the producing animals:

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Accipenser Huso.

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1st quality.

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2d

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Silurus Glanis (?)

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Accipenser Sturio (?)

Silurus.

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J Probably a species
Polynemus.

Accipenser.

Gadus Merluccius.
Accipenser Sturio.

other things, might be enumerated as valuable, chiefly in consequence of their richness in this material.

GLUE differs only from gelatine in the care taken in its manufacture, and in the selection of the mate rials from which it is made; almost every animal substance will yield it, hence all kinds of animal refuse finds their way to the glue-makers' boilers. Nevertheless, the impossibility of preserving, for any length of time, the materials required for this manufacture, renders it necessary to adopt some system in choosing and preserving them, until sufficient quantities are collected, without fermen. Probably a species of tation or decomposition. Hence the refuse of tanPimelodus. Probably a species of neries, consisting of the clippings of hides, hoofs, ear and tail pieces of ox, calf, and sheep are preferred, because they can be dressed with lime, of which removes the hair, and acts as an antiseptic. For this purpose, they are placed in tanks with quicklime and water for two or three weeks, during which the lime is several times renewed, and the pieces frequently turned over. They are afterwards washed and dried, and are ready for use by the glue-maker, who usually gives them another slight lime-dressing, and subsequently washes them; they are afterwards exposed to the action of the air for a time, to neutralise the caustic lime. When well-drained, the pieces are placed in flat-bottomed copper-boilers, which have a perforated false bottom placed a little distance above the true one, to prevent the burning of the materials, and which have been supplied with rain or other soft water up to two-thirds the depth of the boiler, the pieces being piled up to some height above the top of the open boiler. The whole is kept at a gentle boiling heat until all the gelatinous part has dissolved out, and the mass of material has sunk down into the fluid. of small quantities, the operator knows the fluid The boiling is sustained until, by repeated trials is of the right consistency, when it is drawn of carefully into the congealing boxes, and fresh

Besides these now well-known commercial varieties, others are occasionally met with, as the Manilla, in

thin cakes; the Para, which is the most remarkable of all, resembling grapes of a reddish-brown colour, growing from a straight thick stem; these are the dried ova of the Sudis gigas, a large fish common in the mouths of the Amazon. An inferior kind is also made of cod-sounds and sole-skins, sufficiently good, however, to be used in fining beer and other liquids.

One of the qualities of gelatine is its power to form chemical combinations with certain organic matters; hence, when it is mixed and dissolved in a fluid containing such matters, it combines, and the compound is precipitated. It would appear

So called from the bladder being purposely bent into the form of a staple in drying.

GELDERLAND-GELLERT.

materials are added to the residue left behind in the boiler, and the process is repeated.

The congealing boxes are of wood, and are nearly square, being slightly narrower at the bottom than the top; they are filled to the brim, and when their contents are sufficiently solidified, the glue, with a little management, turns out in the form of a cube, which is cut into thin slices by a wire in the same manner as soap; and these larger slices are subdivided into smaller cakes by a wet knife. Frames, with nets stretched upon them, are provided for drying the cakes upon; and these frames, when covered with the cakes of glue, are adjusted one over another at a little distance apart, supported between four uprights, and if in the open air, covered over with little wooden roofs, the whole being arranged so that the air can have free access to facilitate drying. This process is an anxious one to the manufacturer, as the changes of the weather have great and often completely destructive effects upon glue in this state; and in this country only the spring and the autumn can be relied upon with any satisfaction. Generally, after the open air drying, the glue is taken to drying-rooms heated slightly, where it hardens effectually; but it is not yet finished; the cakes at this stage have a dull, unsightly look, to remedy which they are dipped into cold water, or are wetted with a brush dipped in hot water, and re-dried, this wetting giving the cakes a bright varnished appearance. Great Britain does not excel in the manufacture of

glue, and British workmen usually prefer the dark variety. Very superior glue is made by the Dutch and Germans, by whom the light and more carefully made varieties are most prized, the adhesive qualities being lessened exactly in proportion to the impurities present in the material.

GELDERLAND, a province of Holland, is
situated between the Zuider Zee on the north-
west, and the Prussian dominions on the south-
east." It has an area of 1948 square miles, and
in 1860 a population of 405,490. It is watered
chiefly by the Yssel, the Rhine, the Waal, and the
Maas. The surface is in general flat, but north-
ward from Arnheim, the capital, and over the
whole of the north-west portion of the province,
stretch sandy hills, frequently covered with bushes.
The climate is healthy, and the soil, on the whole,
good, though much of it is still in heath and
marsh. Along the river valleys a rich loamy soil
is found. Agriculture is prosecuted with great
success. Wheat, rye, buckwheat, tobacco, &c., are
abundantly produced. Among the manufactures,
paper and leather are the principal.
Chief towns,
Arnheim, Nimeguen, and Zutphen.

the sub-order Ceramiacea, some of the species of
GELI'DIUM, a genus of Algo (sea-weeds), of
which are believed to afford the material used by
certain species of swallow in building the edible
nests so much prized by the Chinese. See NESTS,
EDIBLE.
food in the east. Like many other sea-weeds of
Several species of gelidium are used as
this order, they are almost entirely gelatinous, and
when boiled with condiments to give pungency
and flavour, form a very wholesome and agreeable
food.

GELL, SIR WILLIAM, knight, an eminent antiquarian and classical scholar, the younger son of Philip Gell, Esq. of Hopton, Derbyshire, was born in 1777. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated as B.A. in 1798, and M. A. in 1804, and was for sometime a fellow of Emmanuel College in that university. He devoted his time principally Besides its use in joinery, cabinet-making, and to antiquarian research and geographical studies, similar operations, glue is used by paper-makers and published the following learned and valuable and in dressing silks; and for these last two works: The Topography of Troy (1804, folio); The purposes fine light-coloured kinds in thin cakes Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca (1808, 4to); are made. Large quantities are employed also by The Itinerary of Greece (1810, 4to); The Itinerary paper-hangers and others for sizing walls in the of the Morea (1817, 8vo); Attica (1817, folio); state called size, which is the glue simply gela- Pompeiiana, or Observations upon the Topography, tinised after boiling in the first process. A very Edifices, and Ornaments of Pompeii-in conjunction fine and pure white size is made by the bonnet-with J. P. Gandy, Esq., an interesting and beautiful makers of Bedfordshire and other places of the skins of calves' head, ears, and the under part of the neck and belly: this is used for stiffening straw, cotton, horse-bair, and other plaits for making bonnets and hats.

VEGETABLE JELLY, which is analogous to animal gelatine, is obtained largely from some fruits, but never in a pure state; it is only of value in preserving such parts of the fruit for culinary purposes; but several of the sea-weeds yield a large quantity of very pure jelly, which, in some instances, is applied to important purposes: thus, the jelly of fucus spinosus, the agar-agar, or agal-agal, abundant on the shores of the eastern seas, is used by the East Indians, Cingalese, and Chinese for dressing their silks; the Chinese also ingeniously form thin films of the jelly over a framework of bamboo, and thus make small windows for their houses. This, and another, Gracillaria lichenoides, are formed into a thick jelly, with sugar and other materials, and eaten as a delicacy; and both are supposed to supply the material for those wonderful birds'-nests, which constitute the most costly luxury known to the art of cooking. Another felly-yielding sea-weed is found on our own shores, called the Irish Moss or Carrigeen (Chondrus Crispus), which is often made into jellies for invalids, and the plant itself, on account of its richness in this material, is very extensively employed in feeding cattle, especially in England.

work, which first brought his name into notice (2 vols. 8vo, 1817-1819; second series, 2 vols. 8vo, 1832); Narrative of a Journey in the Morea (1823, 8vo); The Topography of Rome and its Vicinity (1834, 8vo); Rome and its Environs (Map, 1834). In August 1814, on the departure to the continent of Caroline, Princess of Wales, consort of George IV., she appointed him as one of her in various parts of Italy, but being attacked with chamberlains. In that capacity he attended her the gout, was soon obliged to resign his situation. In 1820, he was examined as a witness at the bar of the House of Lords during the proceedings against her majesty after she became queen, and had returned to England. Subsequently, he resided in Italy, principally at Naples, having a house also at Rome, where he occasionally took up his abode. He died at Naples, February 4, 1836, and was interred in the English burial-ground of that city.

GE'LLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT, a German poet and moralist, was born July 4, 1715, at Haynichen, in the Erzgebirge, in Saxony, entered the university of Leipsic in 1734, where he devoted himself mainly to the study of theology. After some years spent as a tutor, and as a teacher in a public academy, he obtained a professorship in the same university in 1751. His lectures on poetry, rhetoric, and morals were numerously attended, and were greatly admired. He died 13th December

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