and camei, including some of the finest known. The Marlborough, still more numerous, comprises many fine camei and intagli, and numerous works of the renaissance. The Pulzky collection, now in Italy, contains many rare and choice intagli. A celebrated collection, the Poniatowsky, formed upon the base of the old collection of Stanislaus, last king of Poland, was so filled with forgeries by its last possessor, executed by Roman artists with inscriptions by Diez, that it entirely lost its value on dispersion. The Hertz collection, the last great one sold, was remarkably rich in fine Etruscan scarabæi and other intagli. There are probably about 10,000 gems reputed to be antique. Yet these are only a mere instalment of those formerly existing. The immense value placed by the ancients on their gems, may be seen by the scabbard of Mithridates, valued at 400 talents, or £7572; the pearl given by Julius Cæsar to Servilia, worth £4800; that swallowed by Cleopatra, valued at £5000; and the pearls and emeralds worn by Lollia Paulina, wife of Caligula, valued at £320,000-all the spoils of provinces and the heirlooms of her family. These, indeed, were probably not engraved, but in modern times great sums have been paid to celebrated engravers, as much as £800 for one cameo.

Although the acquisition of gems is too costly for private individuals, impressions in glass, called pastes (see GLASS), in sulphur, gutta percha, or plaster of Paris, can be easily obtained, and they answer almost all the purposes of study. Some ancient impressions in terra cotta, indeed, exist, and the poorer classes of Greece and Rome were content with glass pastes. The value of antique gems, owing to the great difficulty of discerning those really so, has considerably declined in this country, and even their authority is very cautiously cited by archæologists. The principal writers of antiquity who treated of gems are, Onomacritus or the Pseudo-Orpheus, Dionysius Periegetes, Theophrastus, and Pliny, whose chapter is compiled from antecedent Greek and Roman authors. Isidorus, 630 A.D., gives an account of the principal stones; so do Psellus and Marbodus in the 11th c.; Mariette, Pierres Gravées (4to, Paris, 1750); Raspe, Catalogue des Empruntes des Pierres Gravées (4to, Lond. 1757); Millin, Introduction à l'Etude des Pierres Gravées (12mo, Paris, 1796); Krause, Pyrgoteles (8vo, Halle, 1856); Koehler, Ueber die Geschnittene Steine (8vo, St Petersb. 1851); King, Antique Gems (8vo, Lond. 1860).

GEMS, ARTIFICIAL. Ever since the chemical composition of our most valued gems--the diamond, ruby, opal, &c.-has been known, attempts have been made, with more or less success, to reconstruct them in the laboratory by the influence of intense heat, electrical action, &c. Amongst the most successful workers in this field, we may mention Ebelmen,* Despretz, Sainte-Claire Déville, and Becquerel.

There are at present no reasons for believing that diamonds of any appreciable size will be formed artificially; Despretz has, however, succeeded, by intense voltaic action, in obtaining minute, darkcoloured crystals of carbon.

Boron, which was discovered simultaneously in 1807 by Davy in England, and by Gay-Lussac and Thénard in France, was first exhibited in a crystallised form by Wöhler and Sainte-Claire Déville. They have not, however, succeeded in obtaining perfectly pure crystals. The different tints which they exhibit are due to the presence of small quan* Ebelmen's memoirs on this department of chemistry are contained in the first volume of Salvetat's Recueil des Travaux Scientifiques de M. Ebelmen. Paris, 1855.

tities of carbon in a crystalline state (the same condition in which it occurs in the diamond) and of aluminium. It is not impossible that in the dis covery of crystallised boron, we may have advanced a step towards the artificial production of the diamond. The boron crystals possess a brilliancy, hardness, and refractive power scarcely inferior to those of the diamond.

one

Sainte-Claire Déville and Caron have published a very important Memoir in the Comptes Rendus (1858, vol. xlvi.), in which they describe various processes by which they have succeeded in obtaining small crystals of white and green corundum, rubies, sapphires, &c. By the action of the vapours of fluoride of aluminium and boracic acid on another, they obtained crystallised alumina (corundum) in large, but thin crystals, some of which were about 4 of an inch in length, and which in their hardness, and in all their optical and crystallographic properties, resembled natural corundum. When a little fluoride of chromium was added, a similar process yielded violet-red rubies of a perfectly natural tint; with rather more fluoride of chromium, blue sapphires were yielded; and with still more of this ingredient, green corundum was obtained, presenting the natural tint of the variety known as ouvaroffite. A mixture of equal equivalents of the fluorides of aluminium and glucinum, when similarly acted on by boracic acid, yielded crystals of chrysoberyl or cynophane, which, although very minute, were perfect in their form, and in all respects resembled the natural crystals. The action of fluoride of silicium on zirconia yields small crystals of zircon or hyacinth (Zr,O,,SiO3); and by the action of silicic acid on a mixture of the fluorides of aluminium and glucinum, hexagonal plates of extreme hardness were obtained, which in some respects resembled emerald (which they were attempting to form), but were not identical in composition with that gem.

The latest researches on this subject are those of Becquerel in the Comptes Rendus (1861, vol. liii. p. 1196). After having for many years tried to obtain gems from solutions of silicates, and by feeble electric currents, he now uses intense currents, with high tension, and in this way has succeeded in obtaining opals, &c.

GEMS, IMITATION, or Pastes, Pierres Précieuses Artificielles, French imitations of the precious stones, are made of glass specially prepared. It differs from ordinary glass in its greater density; at the same time it is made with the greatest possible amount of transparency and purity. Its composition, generally, may be said to be silica of very pure quality, probably quartz crystals, potash, and oxide of lead; but the exact proportions are varied almost by every maker, and each has a secret ingredient or two to add.

The colours employed are usually the same as those used for colouring ordinary ornamental glass, but upon their careful admixture, and upon the skilful cutting to represent the crystalline form of the real gem, the success of the manufacture chiefly depends. By some persons, the cutting is carried to such a marvellous perfection, that their work would deceive the eye of most ordinary judges, when well set and foiled, or backed with silver or tinfoil. See FOIL.

The glass used for artificial gems is very generally called strass, from the name of a German who claimed the invention. But if we seek the real the time of Strass, for we find Pliny describing inventor of factitious gems, we must go far beyond under the name of gemmæ vitrea, certain imitations of precious stones which were known in his time, some of which were certainly made of coloured

is either a he or a she. German resembles the classic languages in making some inanimate objects masculine, some feminine, and others neuter. Thus at table, a man must speak of the spoon (der löffel) as 'he,' of the fork (die gabel) as she,' and of the knife (das messer) as 'it.' English-in this more rational than any of its congeners-has banished the spurious distinctions of gender that encumbered the Anglo-Saxon like the other Teutonic tongues, and attributes sex only to living beings.

Of the terminations distinctive of gender observable in modern English, some are purely Latin, as in executor, executrix; the feminine -ess, as in countess, is borrowed from the French, and is also of classical origin. The prevalent feminine termination in German is -inn, as in tänzerinn, a female dancer (Fr. danseuse); of this there are two instances in English, in the provincial carlin, the fem. of carl, and vixen = Ger. füchsinn, a female fox. This affix was already in use in Latin, as in regina, a queen reg(s), a king); and in this form it is used in Europe generally to femininise proper names; e. g., Georgina, Wilhelmina, Caroline.

In such pairs as son-daughter; man-maid; horse -mare; cock-hen; there is no etymological relation between the words; they are from distinct roots. But with regard to hen, e. g., the Anglo-Saxon had the two forms, han for the male, and hen for the female; and mare was originally applicable to both sexes, as horse still is (Fr. maréchal, originally an officer who had charge of the horses). The oldest known form of the Teutonic speech, the Gothic, had the two words, magus, son, and magaths, daughter, both from the root mag, to beget, or to make. Magaths has become in Ger. magd, in Eng. maid; magus has been lost in the Teutonic tongues, but it is represented by the Celtic mac (son), evidently from the same root. King, queen, were in Sans. ganika, father, and goni, mother, both from the root gan, to generate, produce. The masculine form appears in Old Ger. as chunig, in modern Ger. könig, in Eng. king; the feminine became the Greek gyne, a woman, as well as the Saxor cuen, Sw. quinna, Old Eng. quene or quean, applied to a woman generally, and the modern, queen, the chief woman of the land.

GENEALOGY (Lat. and Gr. genealogia; from Gr. genos, race, and logos, discourse) is the name applied to the science of the origin, sequence, and affinities of families. Although in itself it is not of sufficient importance to rank as an independent science, yet in so far as it has to do with remarkable and influential families, it forms a very important part of history. It naturally divides itself into two parts, theoretical and practical. The former embraces the principles on which the

science of genealogy is based, while the latter is occupied with tracing the course of particular families themselves. To render perceptible to the senses the descent and relationship of indi. viduals, genealogical tables are made use of, whose arrangement depends on the special purpose for which they are constructed. Usually, however, such tables begin with the earliest ancestor (Ger. stammvater) of a family, from whom all the known members of both sexes are traced in the order of descent. The importance of this branch of human knowledge, however, is perhaps less obvious in a scientific than in a legal aspect, where it is conpersons based on real or alleged relationship, more especially in regard to rights of succession. The earliest traces of genealogy are to be found in the ancestral catalogues of the heroes of the old world. Among the Hebrews, there were parties specially appointed to draw up genealogical tables. The progress of civilisation in states, and in particular the institution of corporations and guilds in the towns, afforded a wider scope for genealogy. But the absence of criticism, and the desire to flatter the great, were the causes of introducing—especially after the 14th c.—the most ridiculous fables into genealogy. Ancestors were fabricated in the most impudently false manner, and families carried back in an unbroken line, not only to the age of Charlemagne, but even, in many cases, to the heroes of the Trojan war. The fact, however, is, that scarcely any family, however distinguished, can trace its ancestors even to the middle of the 11th c. Among the earlier works on genealogy are Ruxner's Turnierbuch (Simmern, 1527) and the genealogical tables of Reusner and Hennings, about the end of the 16th c., but these are not conceived in a historical spirit. A more luminous treatment of the subject was initiated in France by Duchesne, St Marthe, Hozier, Chifflet, Lancelot le Blond, &c., and in England by Dugdale. Rittershusius of Altdorf (died 1670) and Spener of Wittenberg (died 1730) were the first in Germany to base genealogy on documentary evidence. The path entered on by them has been prosecuted by König, Von Imhof, and especially by Hübner in his Genealogis chen Tabellen (4 vols., Leip. 1725-1733; new edit., 1737-1766), to which Lenz added Erläuterungen (Elucidations, Leip. 1756), and Sophia queen of Denmark, Supplement-tafeln (Kopenh. 1822-1824). Gatterer, in his Abriss der Genealogie (Gött. 1788), founded the scientific treatment of the subject, in which he was followed by Putter in his Tabula Genealogica, by Koch in his Tables Généalogiques des Maisons Souveraines d'Europe (Ger. Berlin, 1808), and by Voigtel in his Genealogischen Tabellen (1810).

In Great Britain, the chief printed collections of genealogical information are the Peerages, Baronages, Baronetages, and County Histories. The chief manuscript sources are the public records, heraldic registers, and the parish registers of births, marriages, and deaths.

GENERAL (of religious order), in the Roman Catholic Church, the supreme head, under the pope, of the aggregated communities throughout Christendom belonging to a religious order. The governing authorities of the monastic orders in the Roman Catholic Church may be arranged in three classes: (1.) The superiors of individual convents or communities, called in different orders by the various names of abbot, prior, rector, guardian, &c.; (2.) The provincials, who have authority over all the convents of an entire province-the provinces, in the monastic sense of the word, being usually coincident as to local limits with the several kingdoms in which

the order is established; (3.) The general to whom not only each member of the order, but all the various officials of every rank, are absolutely subject. The general is usually elected commonly by the general chapter of the order, which, in the majority of orders, consists properly of the provincials; with whom, however, are commonly associated the heads of the more important monasteries, as also the superiors of certain subdivisions of provinces. The office of general in most orders is held for three years. In that of the Jesuits it is for life; but in all, the election of the general chapter must be confirmed by the pope. In most orders, too, there is assigned to the general a consultor (admonitor) or associate (socius), who, however, is only entitled to advise, but has no authority to control the superior. The general also is supposed to consult with and to receive reports from the various local superiors. He sends, if necessary, a visitor to inquire into particular abuses, or to report upon such controversies as may arise, and he holds a general chapter of the order at stated times, which differ according to the usage of the several orders. The general is exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, being subject to the immediate jurisdiction of the pope himself. He resides in Rome, where he enjoys certain privileges, the most important of which is the right to sit and vote with the bishops in a general council of the church.

GENERAL AGENT. See AGENT, PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY. GENERAL.

See ASSEMBLY,

GENERAL COUNCIL. See PRIVY COUNCIL. GENERAL DEMU'RRER, in English pleading, was a Demurrer (q. v.) without shewing special cause. Where the objection to the pleading was for want of form, a special demurrer was necessary; but where the defect was in substance, a general demurrer was sufficient. By the Common Law Procedure Act (1852), special demurrers have been abolished, and the distinction has ceased to exist. GENERAL ISSUE, in English pleading, is the form in which the defendant traverses or meets with a simple denial the whole allegations, or the principal fact on which the plaintiff relies in his declaration. Thus, in actions founded on wrongs, the general issue is Not Guilty;' in actions of debt,

that the defendant never was indebted; in actions

on a deed or bond, non est factum, i. e., that it is not the deed of the defendant. Under this issue, the defendant may prove that he never executed the deed; but not that it is bad in point of law. In criminal proceedings, the general issue is 'Not Guilty,' by which plea, without further form, every person, not having the privilege of peerage, upon being arraigned upon any indictment for treason, felony, or piracy, is deemed to have put himself upon country for trial. Where a prisoner refuses to plead, a plea of Not Guilty may be entered for him, 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28. Under the plea of Not Guilty, the prisoner is entitled to give in evidence not only everything which negatives the charge, but also all matter of excuse or justification.

the

GENERAL LIEN, in English Law, is the right which a party has to retain a chattel as security for the payment, not only of the particular article, but of any balance that may be due on general account in the same line of business. General liens do not exist at common law, but depend upon agreement, either express or implied, or upon the usage of trade. Thus, attorneys have a lien for the balance of their accounts over the papers of their clients. Bankers, factors, warehousemen, and others, have

also a lien for the amount due to them on the general balance of their accounts. But it has been held that fullers are not entitled to this privilege, Rose v. Hart, 8 Taunt. 499. The right of wharfingers also is not clear in all cases, Holderness v. Collinson, 7 Barn. and Cres. 212. In regard to carriers, there has been much dispute whether, by the usage of trade, they have a general lien over goods intrusted to them; but the prevailing opinion appears to be that they have. The master of a ship has no lien on the vessel or her freight for his disbursements on her account; but now he has the same lien for his wages as a seaman has; 17 and 18 Vict. c. 104, 8. 191. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 94, it is provided that any person in whose name goods are shipped shall be deemed to be the owner so far as to entitle the consignee to a lien for any advances made for the use of such persons, provided the consignees had no notice when the advance was made that they were not the true owners. As a lien rests upon the right to retain possession, it is lost by abandonment of the possession of the goods.

In Scotland a similar right exists, under the title of Retention (q. v.). See also LIEN, and HYPOTHEC. GENERAL OFFICER is an officer of the

general staff of an army to whom is intrusted the command of a body of men, not less in strength than a Brigade (q. v.). In an army of very large propor tions, the normal sequence of command would be the following: the general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo, or field-marshal, would command the whole force; the generals would have separate corps-d'armée; the lieutenant-generals, wings of those corps-d'armée; the major-generals, divisions in the wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice, however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of å military hierarchy being strictly carried out.

In the British service, colonels become majorgenerals (except in cases of selection for very dis tinguished service) in order of seniority, provided each has served on full pay for a certain number of years; promotion to be lieutenant-generals and generals follows in exact order of seniority. From marshal' is conferred in rare instances by the special the last, promotion to the exceptional rank of fieldfavour of the sovereign, who represents in person the sole command and possesses the patronage of all the land forces. In addition to the colonels who become effective generals, officers who have retired seniority to the rank of general officers; but they on half-pay at earlier periods of their careers rise by continue, notwithstanding, to receive only the halfpay of the rank in which they retired. With regard to remuneration, general officers hold 164 honorary colonelcies of regiments, worth, with few exceptions, £1000 each per annum, and the remainder receive unattached pay of £600 a year, if they have been in the guards; £1, 68. 3d. a day, if in the artillery or engineers; and £1, 58. a day, if previously in the but when employed actively a general receives, in This pay is received during non-activity, addition, £5, 13s. 9d. a day; a lieutenant-general, 13, 158. 10d.; and a major-general, £1, 178. 11d., besides various allowances. The only generals' commands in the British service are, during peace, the commands-in-chief of the army generally and of the force in India. According to the estimates for 1862-1863, there are 8 lieutenant-generals, 29 major-generals, and 10 brigadier-generals employed actively, exclusive of the numbers serving with the army in India. The last-named rank is only a temporary one in the English service, conferred very commonly on the senior regimental officer of the corps composing the brigade: during duty as briga dier he receives £1, 88. 6d. a day in addition to

line.

p. 233.

Bell's

GENERAL VERDICT. See VERDICT, JURY. GENERALISA'TION. Our experience of the world leads us to recognise not only great variety, but also numerous instances of agreement in the midst of the variety. We do not call the continuance of the same fact an agreement; it is only when, amid difference of accompaniment, we recognise a common feature, that our attention is awakened, and our mind interested. Sometimes the common feature in a number of varying objects is obvious and universally noticed; as when we identify the round form amidst all disparities of size, colour, and substance. At other times, the resemblance is so obscured by the amount of difference, that it has lain for ages unperceived; the fall of a stone was never suspected, before the time of Newton, to have anything in common with the motions of the moon and planets. When we see the same property or effect repeated under great variety of circumstances and adjuncts, and when we indicate by a name or otherwise that this agreement exists, we are said to mark out a general or generalised property, or fact; while the individual instances are termed the particulars, on which the other is grounded.

To understand the full meaning of generalisation, and the questions therewith connected, we must advert to the distinction between two modes of the operation. In the one, we generalise an individual or isolated property-as roundness, whiteness, weight, attraction, justice and assign what we think the exact nature of the common feature thus singled out. A number of designations have been given to this process, according to the particular stage in the operation most specially taken into view; these are Classification, General Notion, General Term, Definition, Abstraction, Concept or Conception, Idea. They all suppose that we have a plurality of objects with agreeing properties, and that agreement has been taken notice of, and embodied in such a form, that the mind can deal with it to the neglect of the points wherein the particular things differ among

themselves. They suppose, further, that we make no affirmation beyond what is implied in the identifying of so many differing objects-namely, that they do agree in the point in question. No other matter for belief or disbelief is presented in the notion of roundness but that certain things have been compared, and have been found to agree in possessing that attribute. To attempt to form a general notion, or to mark a property not attaching to anything in nature, is a pure irrelevance and absurdity; and although by a bold stretch of imagination we might people the earth with chimerical objects, and find agreements among them, yet such generalities could not be introduced into any process of reasoning; it is presumed, that wherever a general property is specified, there are things in nature having this property in company with the others that make up the total characteristics of each.

But the other kind of generalisation introduces belief in a totally different shape. When instead of identifying a property, we identify a union or conjunction of distinct properties, it has to be seen not merely whether the common features are correctly rendered in the general notion, but whether the alleged coupling always takes place. Thus, when find, with some exceptions, that twice a day the we compare the sea coasts all over the globe, we sea advances and recedes on the shore: this fact we express by the general name the tides. When, however, we go further, and note everywhere the coincidence between the tides and the positions of the moon, and generalise that coincidence, we attain to to believe not merely in the accurate correspondence a more complicated result. We are now called upon of a general notion with the particular objects, but in the constancy of the conjunction between two distinct properties, so that the occurrence of one shall always count as evidence of the other. The different aspects of this higher operation have given rise to another series of designations, contrasting with those given above for the simpler operation; these are Induction, Inductive Generalisation, Conjoined Properties, Affirmation, Proposition, Judgment, Law, Order of Nature. These all involve truth or falsehood, inasmuch as they all pretend to give us a positive assurance that wherever we find one thing we shall find some other thing present or absent, and be enabled thereby to anticipate our individual experience of the course of nature. A general notion can often be expressed in a single word; the noun is the part of speech that names both particular objects and general notions. general proposition is a complete thought, and requires a sentence for its enunciation; it involves the verb along with the noun. Heat is a notion, and so is Light; but when we unite the two in the affirmation that heat is the cause of light, we indicate something that is true or false, that may be proved or disproved, believed or denied.

A

This higher form of generalisation is treated of under INDUCTION. On the other and simpler form, a few further explanations are added here. In the operation of forming a general notion, the first step is something of the nature of Classification. We must assemble in our view a number of particular objects, being moved to bring them together by the attractive bond or association of similarity. The objects thus assembled are a class. In Natural History, for example, we bring together in the mind all the quadrupeds that we have ever had any knowledge of, and the array constitutes a class, grounded on the peculiarity of walking on all-fours. Another class is made up of the animals that fly in the air; a third, of those that live in the sea. By such successive groupings of creatures that have a kindred nature in one or more respects, we gradually