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by Bochart, Michaelis, Rosenmüller, Heeren, Vincent, Hävernick and Hengstenberg; but upon the whole, the hints and allusions which it offers have not yet received that sort of treatment, through which it might be made to throw a strong light upon many passages of Scripture and upon the early history of commerce. It has only hitherto been treated incidentally, whereas it requires to become the principal subject of attention to minds prepared by long study and instruction.

The limits and plan of this work necessarily confine us to a few observations on the principal facts which the chapter offers, and in performing this duty we shall avail ourselves of the researches of the authors we have named, particularly of Dr. Vincent, whose commencing observations may suitably introduce the ensuing notes: Let us, in conformity to the opening of the prophecy, consider Tyre as a city of great splendour, magnificently built, and inhabited by merchants, whose wealth rivalled the opulence of kings-who traded to the East by the intervention of Arabia,* and to the west by means of the Mediterranean: let us add to this, that in ages prior to the celebrity of Greece and Rome, their fleets had braved the dangers of the ocean, and their people were the only mariners who were not limited within the circle of the Mediterranean; that they penetrated eastward through the

Ocean. Let us contemplate these enterprises as completed by the efforts of a single city which possibly did not pos sess a territory of twenty miles in circumference; which sustained a siege of thirteen years against all the power of Babylon, and another of eight months against Alexander, in the full career of his victories; and then judge whether a commercial spirit debases the nature of man, or unfits it for the exertion of determined valour; or whether any single city, recorded in history, is worthy to be compared with Tyre. 'Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients,' ii. 624-5.

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Verse 5. Thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir.'-Senir is understood to be the same as Sirion, the Phoenician name for Hermon, a mountain of Lebanon (Deut. iii. 9).

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Straits of Death, which were the termination of the Red Sea, and westward beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which were the boundaries of all knowledge to every nation but their own; that they advanced northward to the British Isles, and southward to the coast of Africa on the Atlantic

Not only through Arabia, surely; compare the notes on 2 Chron, viii. 24; xx. 36.

PINUS ORIENTALIS.

Our knowledge of the firs of Lebanon is very limited in deed it is very possible, however, that that here intended may have been the Pinus Laricio, or Corsican pine, which very much resembles the Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir, in appearance as well as in the structure of the cone. The wood is however more compact and flexible than that of the Scotch fir, and is therefore better adapted to the purpose indicated in the text-the planking of vessels. We are however persuaded that the word i berosh was a general name among the Hebrews for several kindred kinds of trees, and not for one species in particular; and it probably included the cypress which is mentioned in Gen. vi. 14, under the more specific name of GOPHER. We do not know what species of fir grew in their country and neigh bourhood; but as it may be conjectured with tolerable safety that the P. Halepensis and P. Orientalis were of the number, and included under the general name, we give specimens of these, in addition to the P. Laricio. The P. Halepensis certainly grew in the neighbourhood

of Palestine, as its name, derived from Aleppo, indicates; and that the P. Orientalis-distinguished for the elegance of its cone-grew in Lebanon, may safely be presumed. There are some grounds on which the Pinaster might also have been added.

PINUS HALEPENSIS.

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-'Cedars from Lebanon to make masts.'-It is by no means certain that the tree to which naturalists have given the name cedar of Lebanon,' is the same as the (7) of Lebanon' so often mentioned in Scripture. As the word in the Aramæan dialects is applied to several similar trees of the pine tribe, it may very possibly have been the same in the Hebrew. Under this view it might sometimes denote the cedar of Lebanon' and often other trees of a similar character; and if so those equally err who insist that this tree can only be intended, with those who contend for some other particular species to the exclusion of all the rest. This is a subject of some interest, to which we may possibly return in some less occupied place. Meanwhile we may observe that the so called 'cedar of Lebanon' can hardly be intended in this particular text, as, although the trunk of this tree is large, it is neither long nor straight, and therefore utterly unfit to be the mast of a ship. To which we may add that the wood is soft, and inferior to the worst kinds of deal. Separately from any speculation about words, the probability is unquestionable that the Tyrians would employ the fir-trees of Lebanon, or some one of the several species growing there, for masts to their vessels. Even the Egyptians made, and do still make, large importations of firs from Syria to be applied to this and other uses.

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6. Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars.' -The common oak (Quercus robur) does at this day occur rather frequently in Bashan and the neighbouring districts

east of Jordan. We do not however recollect any instance in which oak occurs among the timbers used in ancient ship-building; and from its heaviness and want of elasticity it seems peculiarly ill adapted for oars, hence Houbigant translates alders.' But, although it is by no means certain that oak is intended, it may be well to recollect that the oars used in the ancient shipping were often of great length, and must hence have been employed at a greater mechanical disadvantage, and consequently with more force than is required by any use of the oar among ourselves. The same qualities were therefore not required in the wood they employed, and we indeed read of oars covered with brass or silver.

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The company of the Ashurites,' etc.-It is very difficult to comprehend this verse as it stands in our translation. We do not know who may be intended by 'the company of the Ashurites;' that benches should be made of ivory is wholly improbable; neither was ivory brought from any of the places supposed to be denoted by the name 'Chittim.' The Targum and R. Jarchi, followed by most modern interpreters, by a very simple alteration, that of reading Dn as one word, produce a very clear sense-Thy benches have they made of ivory, inlaid in box from the isles of Chittim.' This supposes that the benches were made of box inlaid or covered with ivoryan employment of ivory very probable, from the manner in which we know that substance to have been anciently used for the interior decoration of houses. In ancient vessels there are many benches for the numerous rowers to sit on; but here perhaps the distinguished seats, in what appears to have been a magnificent galley, may be intended. It is however uncertain whether seats be at all indicated.

-Chittim.'-See Num. xxiv. 24.

7. Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt.... to be thy sail.'-Fine Egyptian linen, embroidered, was not very well adapted, one would think, for the sails of vessels, in any other than holiday navigation; nor would be very eligible even then. This consideration probably led the Targum and Vulgate to conclude that it would be better to understand the term to refer to a flag or ensign than to a sail. The flags of ancient vessels were usually placed at the prow, and in most cases each ship had its own particular flag, by which it was distinguished from others. It usually contained the representation of a mountain, a tree, a flower, a bird, a beast, or some imaginary creature. If, however, we understand that the present description rather refers to the splendid pleasure-galleys of the merchant princes of Tyre, than to ships intended for the busi

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vessels of the king and the grandees appear to have been often painted with rich colours, or embroidered with fanciful devices, representing the phoenix, flowers, and various emblems. Some exhibit chequered patterns, and others are striped. Sails of this sort were also furnished with a strong hem or border, neatly coloured, to strengthen and preserve them from injury; and, for the same purpose, a light rope was generally sewed round it. (See Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, i. 9.) The sails of the Egyptian, and, seemingly of other ancient vessels, appear to have been always square, with a yard above and below. In this they differ from those now used in Egypt (1) and other parts of the Levant, which are generally furnished with lateen, or triangular-shaped sails. In common vessels among the Egyptians, there was a yard at the bottom as well as top of the sail; and in striking sail it seems to have been the course to lower the upper yard, and fold the sail between it and the lower; but in war-galleys and some other vessels the lower yard was wanting, and the sail was drawn up and reefed to the upper yard in action, or when, from winds or currents, the sails became useless, and the vessel was propelled wholly by the oars.

'Blue and purple from the isles of Elisha...covered thee.'-Elisha was one of the sons of Javan (Gen: x. 4); and as Javan is the general title for the Greek nation, Elisha may well be taken for a part, and that part Elis, Hellas, or Peloponnesus. It seems odd that the Tyrians, who were themselves so famous for their purples, should have required this from Elisha. But the purple of Laconia was the finest dye next to the Tyrian; and the purple cloth of that province was possibly employed because it was cheaper than that of Tyre, which was reserved for the use of kings' (Vincent). It seems to have been employed for coverings or awnings to the galleys, which were sometimes very magnificent. Our readers will remember that the famous galley in which Cleopatra went to meet Anthony had an awning of cloth of gold. Indeed, it is observed by Bishop Newton, that Cleopatra's sailing down the river Cydnus, to meet her gallant, Anthony, was not with greater finery and magnificence; nor have the historians and poets painted the one in more lively colours than the prophet has the other.'

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8-11. These verses are very instructive, and the information they furnish is too clear to require explanation. "The Tyrians themselves were wholly devoted to commerce and to the management of their vessels; while the kindred Phoenicians furnished them with mariners and shipwrights. Like the Carthaginians, also their kindred, their army was composed of foreign mercenaries, obtained by them from Persia and Africa; while the important trust of forming the garrison of the city was given to native Phoenicians, the men of Arvad (Aradus) and the Gammadim. Of the latter we do not elsewhere read; but they were probably a people of Phoenicia; and perhaps the inhabitants of Ancon, Ayxwv and 7, both signifying a cubit. Pliny mentions Gamah, a city of Phoenicia; for which some propose to read Gamade (L. ii. c. x. 91)-Newcome. Perhaps no certainty can be obtained on this point. But it appears that the mercenaries were for foreign, or more properly colonial, service; while the Aradians, at least, as joined in the same commercial interest, had the defence of the city confided to them; and the same people, with the Sidonians, manned the ships of Tyre.

9. The ships of the sea.'-The details respecting ancient ships and navigation which this chapter contains, afford an opportunity for some remarks on that subject, supplementary in some measure to the particulars respecting boats which were offered under Isaiah xviii. 2. In fulfilling this object it is necessary to notice the larger vessels employed by the Egyptians; for, although the condition of their navigation was materially different from that of the Phoenicians, the information which we possess from history and from the sculptures and paintings of the country, is the most ancient to which we have access, is nearest the times under review, and some general resemblance must have existed, besides that our object is rather to notice the

vessels of ancient times generally than those of the Phanicians in particular. The fact of resemblance is at least in one particular substantiated by an Egyptian painting representing a Phoenician war-galley, which has considerable likeness to Egyptian vessels of the same class (2, 5). Herodotus thus describes the barges or vessels of burden

2. PHOENICIAN WAR-GALLEY.

used on the Nile:- The Egyptians frame their vessels of burden from a species of the thorn-tree, which in appearance much resembles the lotus of Cyrene, from which a gum exudes in drops. From this thorn they cut pieces of wood of about two cubits in length: these are put together in the manner of tiles, to form the vessel. The pieces are connected by stout and long wooden pins. When the sides are thus formed, they place transverse beams above, without using any ribs; the joints are stopped on the inner side with the papyrus. The rudder is made to pass through the keel; the mast is formed of the thorn, and the sails are of papyrus. These vessels are not able to stem the current of the river, except with a wind directly favourable; but are drawn along from the shore. In passing down the stream, the plan they adopt is this: from the tamarisk-tree is formed a shutter or hurdle, wattled with reeds; they provide also a pierced stone weighing about two talents. The hurdle is fastened crossways by a rope to the bow of the vessel, and receives the current, while the stone is suspended by another rope from the stern. The vessel or barge, as it is called, is therefore borne swiftly along by means of the hurdle; while its course is directed by the stone which hangs in deep water behind. The Egyptians have great numbers of barges of this kind, and some of them carry many thousand talents' burden.'

Sir J. G. Wilkinson, who quotes this (in a bad translation), says: That boats of this construction were really

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used in Egypt, is very probable; they may have been employed to carry goods from one town to another, and navigated in the manner he mentions; but we may be allowed

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to doubt their carrying several thousand talents, or many tons, weight; and we have the evidence of the paintings of Upper and Lower Egypt to shew that the large boats of burden were made of wooden planks, which men are seen cutting with saws and hatchets, and afterwards fastening together with nails and pins; and they were furnished with spacious cabins like those of modern Egypt.' We do not see anything in this contrary to Herodotus, who states that they were made of planks, and does not say that they had no cabins. The same writer states that the sails, when made of the rind of the papyrus, have been supposed similar to those of the Chinese, which fold up like Venetian blinds.' Indeed there is much stated in this author's work to confirm the opinion that the vessels now in use among the Chinese and Hindoos (3, 4) offer very great resemblance to those anciently in use among the Egyptians, and probably among the Phoenicians. Wilkinson remarks, however, that there is only one vessel (7) represented in the paintings which appears to have sails of this kind, although so many are introduced there: Nor,' he adds, 'can we believe that a people, noted for their manufacture of linen and other cloths, should have preferred so imperfect a substitute as the rind of a plant, especially as they exported sail-cloth to Phoenicia for that purpose:' for which he quotes v. 7 of the present chapter (see the note thereon).

Large Egyptian vessels had generally one, and small boats two rudders at the stern. The former traversed upon a beam between two projecting heads, a short pillar or mast supporting it, and acting by the centre upon which it moved. The latter were nearly the same in principle, except that they turned on a bar, or in a ring, by which they were suspended to the gunwale at either side, and in both instances the steersman directed them by means of a

rope fastened to the upper extremity. The rudders consisted of a long broad blade, and still longer handle, made in imitation of the oars, by which they originally steered their boats, before they had so far improved them as to adopt a fixed rudder. The oars were a long round wooden shaft, to which a flat board, of oval or circular form, was fastened; and it is remarkable that the same oar is used to this day on the Ganges and in the Arabian Gulf. They turned either on toll pins or in rings, fastened to the gunwale of the boat; and the rowers sat on the deck, on benches, or on low seats, or stood or knelt to the oar, sometimes pushing it forward, sometimes (and indeed more generally) pulling it, as is the modern custom in Egypt and most other countries. That some of the ancient Egyptian vessels were built with ribs, like those of the present day, is shewn by the rude models discovered in the tombs at Thebes. It is probable that they had very little keel, in order to enable them to avoid the sandbanks, and to facilitate their removal when they struck: and indeed the models seem to shew that they were generally flat-bottomed. The boats now used on the Nile have a very small keel, particularly at the centre, where it is concave; so that when the head strikes they put to the helm, and the hollow part clears the bank. And here it may be observed that the difference between the maritime navigation and that of large rivers was much less considerable in ancient times than at present; for the sea-going vessels crept along shore in such a manner as exposed the vessels in both to nearly the same incidents, and therefore a greater similarity of build than now exists prevailed.

The cabins in the Egyptian vessels were not under the deck, and were lofty and spacious. They did not, however, always extend over the whole breadth of the boat, but

merely occupied the centre, the rowers sitting on each side, usually on a bench or stool. They were made of wood, with a door in front, or sometimes on one side, and they were painted within and without with numerous devices in brilliant and lively colours. The head and stern of Egyptian pleasure vessels were usually ornamented with or terminated in the shape of a flower richly painted; in the boats of burden they were destitute of ornament, and

5. EGYPTIAN GALLEY.

simply rounded off; and Wilkinson states that he had met with two only which had any resemblance to a beak. Nor are the galleys or ships of war furnished with any thing like those sharp beaks of metal which were used with effect in the Roman galleys; but its place is in many cases occupied with a figure-head-usually of a lion. This is wanting in the single Phoenician galley of which we have a representation; but in one supposed to belong to the Philistines, the figure-head is that of a goose.

The number of rowers in the boats of the Nile enables us to form some idea of the size of ancient vessels of this sort. Some of them are furnished with forty-four oars, twenty-two being represented on each side, which, allowing for the steerage and prow, would require their whole length to be about 120 feet. The Egyptians had, however, vessels much larger than these, which their paintings do not exhibit. Diodorus mentions one of cedar wood, dedicated by Sesostris to the god of Thebes, 280 cubits, or 420 feet long; and Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty benches of oars, which was 420 feet long, and 72 from the keel to the top of the poop, and carried 400 soldiers, besides 4000 rowers, and nearly 3000 soldiers. These, however, were extraordinary feats of ship building; and we observe ge

nerally that the largest vessels practically in use among the ancients were of very small size in comparison with those of modern times. At the head of the vessels, a forecastle frequently projected above the deck, which was the station of a man with a long fathoming pole, who therewith sounded the water. At the stern another of similar form was sometimes added, reminding one of the poop of Roman vessels: this was the station of the steersman. The wargalleys of all nations which the Egyptians have represented differed materially in their construction from the vessels of the Nile. They were less raised at the head and stern; and on each side, through the whole length of the vessel, a wooden bulwark, rising considerably above the gunwale, sheltered the rowers, who sat behind it, from the missiles of the enemy, the handles of the oars passing through an aperture at the lower part.

From what has been stated, it will be seen that the ancient ships were of three kinds-ships of war, of passage, and of merchandise. All our cuts belong to the two latter classes, the first not being required for our present purpose. To diversify the illustration we have given specimens from different ancient nations-Egyptian and Roman. It will be observed that they have all but one mast; nor do any ancient authors mention more; but an engraved gem, copied by Stosch, represents a vessel with a main and mizen mast. This vessel, like our figs. 9 and 11, is equipped for sailing only, not for rowing also; although, as in the rest of our cuts, very ancient vessels are usually represented as adapted for rowing only, or for both rowing and sailing. (See Jonah i. 13; Ezek. xxvii. 26.) The progress of invention seems to have been-first rowing; then sails to assist rowing; and ultimately sailing only. It appears from Ezek. xxvi. 6, 7, 29, that the Phoenician ships were worked by oars and sails; some apparently by both, and others by oars only. There are other passages of Scripture bearing on the practices of ancient navigation, which will receive our attention when we reach them. The mast remained for a long time moveable, and was only set up as wanted. Such are the masts mentioned by Homer. The intimation of the prophet seems to the same purport (Isa. xxxiii. 23); and this is clearly exhibited in the bas-relief of the building of the Argo, in the Townley collection of marbles. The poets, also, who relate the voyage of that famous ship, of which they speak with wonder, describe it as being propelled at once by sail and oars, and speak of the mast as taken down when in harbour, and set up again when it departed. We introduce a cut (10) of the bas-relief, which affords a curious and appropriate illustration of the present subject. The ancient navigators long continued to use the sail only with a favourable wind; and their learning at last how to sail

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