usually known by the name of Nimrud, is called Athur by the Arabic geographers, and in Athur we recognize the old name of Assyria, which Dio Cassius writes Atyria, remarking that the barbarians changed the Sigma into Tau. Assyria is called Athurâ in the inscriptions of Darius.1 We hear of battles fought on the Sutledge, and we hardly think that the battle field of the Sikh was nearly the same where Alexander fought the kings of the Penjáb. But the name of the Sutledge is the name of the same river as the Hesudrus of Alexander, the Satadru of the Indians, and among the oldest hymns of the Veda, about 1500 B. C., we find a warsong referring to a battle fought on the two banks of the same river.

No doubt there is danger in trusting to mere similarity of names. Grimm may be right that the Arii of Tacitus were originally Harii, and that their name is not connected with Arya. But the evidence on either side being merely conjectural, this must remain an open question. In most cases, however, a strict observation of the phonetic laws peculiar to each language will remove all uncertainty. Grimm, in his "History of the German Language" (p. 228), imagined that Hariva, the name of Herat in the cuneiform inscriptions, is conrected with Arii, the name which, as we saw, Herodotus gives to the Medes. This cannot be, for the initial aspiration in Hariva points to a word which in Sanskrit begins with 8, and not with a vowel, like drya. Th following remarks will make this clearer.

Herat is called Herat and Heri,2 and the river on

1 See Rawlinson's Glossary, s. v.

2 W. Ouseley, Orient. Geog. of Ebn. Haukal. Burnouf, Yasna, Notes, p

102.

which it stands is called Heri-rud. This river Heri is called by Ptolemy 'Apeías,1 by other writers Arius; and Aria is the name given to the country between Parthia (Parthuwa) in the west, Margiana (Marghush) in the north, Bactria (Bakhtrish) and Arachosia (Harauwatish) in the east, and Drangiana (Zaraka) in the south. This, however, though without the initial h, is not Ariana, as described by Strabo, but an independent country, forming part of it. It is supposed to be the same as the Haraiva (Hariva) of the cuneiform inscriptions, though this is doubtful. But it is mentioned in the Zend-avesta, under the name of Haroyu,2 as the sixth country created by Ormuzd. We can trace this name with the initial h even beyond the time of Zoroaster. The Zoroastrians were a colony from northern India. They had been together for a time with the people whose sacred songs have been preserved to us in the Veda. A schism took place, and the Zoroastrians migrated westward to Arachosia and Persia. In their migrations they did what the Greeks did when they founded new colonies, what the Americans did in founding new cities. They gave to the new cities and to the rivers along which they settled, the names of cities and rivers familiar to

1 Ptol. vi. c. 17.

2 It has been supposed that harôyûm in the Zend-avesta stands for haraêvem, and that the nominative was not Harôyu, but Haraêvô. (Oppert, Journal Asiatique, 1851, p. 280.) Without denying the possibility of the correctness of this view, which is partially supported by the accusative vidôyum, from vidaêvo, enemy of the Divs, there is no reason why Harôyûm should not be taken for a regular accusative of Harôyu. This Harôyu would be as natural and regular a form as Sarayu in Sanskrit, nay even more regular, as harôyu would presuppose a Sanskrit sarasyu or saroyu, from saras. M. Oppert identifies the people of Haraiva with the 'Apɛiol, but not, like Grimm, with the "Apio.

them, and reminding them of the localities which they had left. Now, as a Persian h points to a Sanskrit 8, Harôyu would be in Sanskrit Saroyu. One of the sacred rivers of India, a river mentioned in the Veda, and famous in the epic poems as the river of Ayodhyâ, one of the earliest capitals of India, the modern Oude, has the name of Sarayu, the modern Sardju.1

As Comparative Philology has thus traced the ancient name of Arya from India to Europe, as the original title assumed by the Aryans before they left their common home, it is but natural that it should have been chosen as the technical term for the family of languages which was formerly designated as Indo-Germanic, Indo-European, Caucasian, or Japhetic.

1 It is derived from a root sar or sri, to go, to run, from which saras, water, sarit, river, and Sarayu, the proper name of the river near Oude; and we may conclude with great probability that this Sarayu or Sarasyu gave the name to the river Arius or Heri, and to the county of 'Apia or Herat. Anyhow 'Apia, as the name of Herat, has no connection with "Apia the wide country of the Aryas.

LECTURE VII.

THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

OUR analysis of some of the nominal and verbal formations in the Aryan or Indo-European family of speech has taught us that, however mysterious and complicated these grammatical forms appear at first sight, they are in reality the result of a very simple process. It seems at first almost hopeless to ask such questions as why the addition of a mere d should change love present into love past, or why the termination ai in French, if added to aimer, should convey the idea of love to come. But, once placed under the microscope of comparative grammar, these and all other grammatical forms assume a very different and much more intelligible aspect. We saw how. what we now call terminations were originally independent words. After coalescing with the words which they were intended to modify, they were gradually reduced to mere syllables and letters, unmeaning in themselves, yet manifesting their former power and independence by the modification which they continue to produce in the meaning of the words to which they are appended. The true nature of grammatical terminations was first pointed out by a philosopher, who, however wild some of his speculations may be, had certainly caught many a glimpse of the real life and growth of language, I

·

mean Horne Tooke. This is what he writes of terminations: 1

"For though I think I have good reasons to believe that all terminations may likewise be traced to their respective origin; and that, however artificial they may now appear to us, they were not originally the effect of premeditated and deliberate art, but separate words by length of time corrupted and coalescing with the words of which they are now considered as the terminations. Yet this was less likely to be suspected by others. And if it had been suspected, they would have had much further to travel to their journey's end, and through a road much more embarrassed; as the corruption in those languages is of much longer standing than in ours, and more complex."

Horne Tooke, however, though he saw rightly what road should be followed to track the origin of grammatical terminations, was himself without the means to reach his journey's end. Most of his explanations are quite untenable, and it is curious to observe in reading his book, the Diversions of Purley, how a man of a clear, sharp, and powerful mind, and reasoning according to sound and correct principles, may yet, owing to his defective knowledge of facts, arrive at conclusions directly opposed to truth.

When we have once seen how grammatical terminations are to be traced back in the beginning to independent words, we have learnt at the same time that the component elements of language, which remain in our crucible at the end of a complete grammatical analysis, are of two kinds, namely, Roots predicative and Roots demonstrative.

Diversions of Purley, p. 190