four millions sterling, to purchase his exemption; and, as the young man seemed desirous of staying at home, Xerx'es commanded him immediately to be put to death before his father's eyes. Then, causing the body to be cut in two, and one part of it to be placed on the right, and the other on the left of the way, he made the whole army pass between them; a terrible example of what every one had to expect that dared to dispute his orders. B. C. 480. 14. His army was composed not merely of Persians, but of Medes, Lyd'ians, Bac'trians, Assyr'ians, Hyrca'nians; in a word, of every people, that either acknowledged his authority, dreaded his power, or courted his alliance; so that it is said to have amounted to above two millions of men. 15. His fleet consisted of fourteen hundred and twenty-seven ships, besides a thousand lesser vessels, that were employed in carrying provisions. On board of these were six hundred thousand men; so that the whole army might be said to amount to above two millions and a half; which, with the women, slaves, and sutlers always attending a Persian camp, might make the whole above five millions of souls;-a force which, if rightly conducted, might have given law to the universe; but, being commanded by ignorance and presumption, was soon after repulsed, and finally defeated, by the small but gallant states of Greece. 16. With this mighty armament Xerx'es set out on his expedition, ten years after the battle of Mar'athon. 17. Upon reviewing his forces, his heart was naturally elated with joy, from a consciousness of his superior power: but this soon gave place to the feelings of humanity, and he burst into tears when he reflected that a hundred years hence not one of so many thousands would be alive 18. He had previously given orders for building a bridge of boats across the Hel'lespont, or, as it is now called, the Dardanelles, which separates Asia from Europe, and is about an English mile over. 19. But this bridge, when completed, being carried away by the current, Xerx'es, like a tyrant, wreaked his vengeance upon the workmen, and like a lunatic, upon the sea. He caused the heads of the former to be struck off, and a certain number of lashes to be inflicted upon the latter, to punish it for its insolence, and fetters to be thrown into it, to teach it for the future obedience to his will-a striking proof how much the possession of despotic power tends not only to corrupt the heart, but even to weaken and blind the understanding. 20. A new bridge was formed by a double range of vessels, secured by double anchors, and fastened together with the strongest cables. On these a roadway was formed by the trunks of trees; the interstices were filled up with earth, and smooth planks laid over all. The sides were fenced with wicker-work to prevent any of the horses or beasts of burden from slipping over; and upon this singular structure the entire army passed over from Aby'dos, in Asia Minor, to the little city of Ses'tus in Thrace. So great was the number of the Persians, tha seven days and nights were spent in the passage. 21. Xerx'es, having thus entered Europe, began his march directly for Greece, receiving everywhere the submission of the countries through which he passed. Most of the states of Greece, overawed by his power, submitted at the first summons. Athens and Sparta alone, those glorious republics, nobly disdained such pusillanimous conduct. They gallantly resolved to oppose the invader of their country, and either to preserve their liberties entire, or to perish in the attempt.* From the moment that Xerx'es began his preparations, they had received intelligence of his designs; and in their turn began to take measures for rendering them abortive. 22. They had also sent spies to Sardis, in order to bring them an exact account of the number and quality of the enemy's forces. The spies, indeed, were seized; but Xerx'es, instead of punishing or even detaining them, ordered them to be conducted through his camp, and then dismissed, desiring them at the same time, on their return home, to give a faithful relation of what they had seen. 23. The Athenians and Spartans, however, neither intimidated by the mighty force that now came against them, nor by the base submission of the inferior states, nobly resolved to face the common danger with joint forces. These forces did not amount to above eleven thousand two hundred men: and yet, with this handful of troops, they determined to oppose the almost innumerable army of Xerx'es. 24. Their first care was to appoint a general; and they The whole population of these little states, which thus prepared to withstand the immense armies of Persia, was considerably less than tha of Yorkshire in England. The answers of the oracles likewise, instead of being encouraging, were either ambiguous or terrifying. Yet this vast disproportion of numerical strength, and the discouraging responses of their god, did not deter these champions of liberty from their purpose, nor dispose them to submit to the arbitrary mandate of the Persian despot. wisely made choice of Themis'tocles, the ablest commander that had appeared in Greece since the death of Milti'ades. They likewise recalled Aristei'des, who had been driven into banishment by the faction of his enemies,* at the head of which, indeed, was Themis 'tocles: such is the jealousy that sometimes prevails between great men, though equally attached to the interest of their country! 25. Ambassadors were sent to the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, soliciting them to assist their parent country in this crisis; the inhabitants of these states, with that eager love for Hel'las which pervaded all the Hellenic tribes, immediately promised their assistance. Ge'lon, who then ruled at Sy'racuse, was appointed to command the auxiliaries, and, impressed with a deep sense of his own importance and abilities, required to be nominated captain-general of all the Grecian forces. The Spartans, with their usual pride, peremptorily rejected his demand; and before any amicable arrangement could be formed, the Græco-Italian states were obliged to contend for their own independence at home. The Carthaginians had been long the commercial rivals of the Grecian colonists, and had vainly attempted to crush their rising greatness; the invasion of Greece by Xerxes seemed *It was upon the occasion of his banishment, that a peasant who could not write, and did not know Aristei'des personally, applied to him, and desired him to write the name of that citizen upon the shell, by which his vote was given against him. "Has he done you any wrong," said Aristei'des, "that you are for condemning him in this manner?". "No," replied the peasant, "but I hate to hear him always praised for his justice." Aristei'des, without saying a word more, calmly took the shell, wrote down his name upon it, and contentedly retired into exile. to afford them a favourable opportunity; they entered into a close alliance with the Persian monarch, and attacked Sicily at the very same moment that he invaded Greece. The defeat of the Carthaginians was as signal as that of their Asiatic ally; but it did not occur at a period sufficiently early to allow of the colonists parting with any of their forces for the defence of the parent state. 26. Themistocles saw that the enemy must be opposed by sea as well as by land; and, to enable him to do this with the greater effect, he caused a hundred galleys to be built, and turned all his thoughts towards the improvement of the navy. The oracle had declared some time before, that Athens should defend herself only with wooden walls; and he took advantage of the ambiguity of this reply, to persuade his countrymen that by such walls was meant her shipping. The Lacedæmo'nians used equal industry in improving their navy, so that, upon the approach of Xerx'es, the confederates found themselves possessed of a squadron of two hundred and eighty sail, the command of which was conferred upon Eurybi'ades, a Spartan. 27. Being unable to cope with the overwhelming numbers of the Persians in the open plains, the Greeks resolved to confine their military operations to the defence of the few passes that are found in the chains of mountains by which Hellas is intersected. For this purpose, they sent a strong detachment to secure the vale of Tempe', which formed the usual road between Macedonia and Thessaly. But having soon after discovered that there was another pass at some distance, and their army being insufficient to garrison both, they retreated southwards, and finally resolved to make their first stand at the straits of Thermop'yle, which secured the entrance to Phocis and Boeotia. 28. The command of this important pass was given to Leon'idas, one of the kings of Sparta, who led thither a body of six thousand men. Of these three hundred only were Spartans; the rest consisted of Boo'tians, Corinthians, Pho'cians, and other allies. This chosen band were taught from the beginning to consider themselves as a forlorn hope, placed there to check the progress of the enemy, and give them a foretaste of the desperate valour of Greece. Nor were even oracles wanting to inspire them with enthusiastic ardour. It had been declared that, to procure the safety of Greece, it was necessary that a king, one of the descendants of Her'cules, should die; and this task was now cheerfully undertaken by Leon'idas, who, when he marched out of Lacedæmon, considered himself a willing sacrifice for his country. Questions for Examination. 1. Did the late defeat of the Persians discourage farther attempts ? 2. Did his successor abandon the idea? 3. What encouraged him to this? 4. Did he hastily engage in this enterprise? 5. What advice was given him? 6. How were these endeavours received?. 7. What in the mean time occupied the attention of the Athenians? 8. What success did they meet with? 9. What means were proposed for its capture or destruction? 10. What steps did Xerxes take for the accomplishment of his design? 11. What was the destination of the fleet and army? 12. By what means did he facilitate the passage of his fleet? 13. Did he not evince a cruel disposition? 14. Of whom was his army composed? 15. What was his naval force, and the whole amount of his armament? 16. When did he commence his march? 17. What were his feelings on reviewing his troops? 18. What method did he adopt to cross the Hellespont ? 19. What was the fate of this bridge, and the behaviour of Xerxes on the occasion? 20. Was the bridge repaired? 21. What kind of reception did he experience? 22. How did Xerxes treat the Grecian spies? 23. What was the amount of the Grecian forces? 24. Who were the Athenian generals? 25. Did the western Greeks assist in this war? 26. Were the Greeks provided with fleets? 27. Where did they resolve to make their first stand? 28. How was Thermopyla garrisoned? SECTION II. SECOND PERSIAN INVASION. 1. In the mean time Xerx'es advanced with his immens army, the very sight of which, he thought, would terrify the Greeks into submission, without his being obliged to strike a single blow. 2. Great therefore was his surprise, when he found that a few desperate men were determined to dispute his passage through the straits of Thermop'yla |