renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of the allies in the

937. Battle of Brunanburh.

Æthelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmund (940946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as à fief to Malcolm, king of Scots. Dunstan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Eadmund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A revolt of the Danes was crushed in 954; final submission of the Danelagh. Eadwig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with Dunstan, and drove him from the country. He was succeeded by his brother,

959-975. Eadgar,

the under king of Mercia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, archbishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Maintenance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Eadward (the martyr), murdered 978.

978-1016. Æthelred II., the Unready,1 son of Eadgar,

in whose reign the political conquest of England was undertaken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the East Saxons, fell. (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) the plan of buying off the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being paid, which were raised by a special tax (Danegeld). În 994 Anlaf (Olaf Tryggvesson) and Swegen (Svend with the Forked Beard) ravaged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Northmen in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1015.

1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers) by order of Ethelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of England. Marriage of Ethelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014). Election of his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recovered all that part of England which they had acquired by the treaty of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of Ethelred the Danish party in England chose Cnut king, but the English party, which centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of Æthelred. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Assandun peace was concluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and London; Cnut received Northumberland and Mercia. The nominal overlordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England.

1 Such is his conventional title; probably "Despiser of Counsel" would better convey the meaning of "Redeless."

1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 1016-1035. Cnut.

England divided into four governments: Wessex, under Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jarls or Earls. Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (1027). Laws of Cnut (1028). Subjugation of Malcolm, king of Scots (1031). Cnut was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035–1040) and Harthacnut (1040-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex; Leofric, earl of Mercia; Siward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnut's death the son of Ethelred,

1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor,

was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine, Leofric, Siward. In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was exiled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the French. Upon the death of Godwine his power passed to his son Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, Leofwine, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold (1063). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of Tostig and election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of Edwin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward,

earl of Wessex, was elected king.

A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by William, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged bequest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession after the death of Eadward. 3. The right of his wife, Matilda (p. 204). The claim being rejected, William at once prepared to assert it by arms.

Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of England.

Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge.

Defeat and death of the invaders. William had meantime landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated in the

Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac,

and fell on the field. Eadgar Etheling, grandson of Eadmund Ironsides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of William.

§ 4. THE NORTH.

Denmark.

Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his

son.

After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the kingdom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the beginning of our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eighth century the famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, and ended in favor of the Swedes.

Both

Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two bands one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstein; the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, Fünen, etc. divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by numerous petty chiefs (smaa-kongar), among the most famous of whom was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head of a loose confederacy of the islands. When Jutes and Angles in the fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands seem to have taken their place in the peninsula.

Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and built a Dannevirk or line of fortresses across the peninsula. Under his successor, Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between Denmark and the Frankish empire.

In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims. In 826 Ansgarius, “the Apostle of the North,” labored in Denmark, but without lasting results.

Gorm the Old (about 860–935), the first king of all Denmark, was a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Dannevirke between the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold Blue-tooth (Blaatand), 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Germany, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Christianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard (Tveskjæd), 985-1014. Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. 205). Knut the Great (1014–1035), king of Denmark and of England. He passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part of Ulf-Jarl to make Hardeknut king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035–1042) succeeded his father in Denmark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agreement whereby whoever should outlive the other should inherit his kingdom. Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was succeeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of Knut (1047-1074). War for seventeen years with Harold Hardrada of Norway was brought to a close in 1064. War with the Wends. Svend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under

his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1077-1080), St. Knut (1080-1086), Olaf Hunger (1086–1095), Erik Ejegod (1095– 1103), Niels (1105–1135).

Sweden.

Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. According to tradition there were two races in the country besides the Finns, the Göta or Gauta (Goths) and the Svea. The Svea traced their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of Upp-sala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, which ruled the Svea until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was independent before its conquest by Gorm of Denmark, succeeded Ingjald. This was in the seventh century.

In the eighth (?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Denmark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story than his father. (Tale of his capture by Ella of Northumberland, and of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the slaughter of Ælla. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be noted.)

cess.

In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansgarius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preaching met with great sucErik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made important conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation of the future empire of Russia (Varinjar, Russ.).

Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Sweden. War with St. Olaf of Norway. The last king of the Upsala line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil (1056-1066).

Norway.

According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trætelje of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth century. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-932), completed the work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of freebooting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under Rolf Ganger (Rollo) in Normandy. Conquest of Dublin by Olauf in 852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 861-875, etc. Blodoxe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jarl (988-995). Olaf Tryggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the

Erik

battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olaf the Lap-king of Norway, Svend Tveskæg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sons of Hakon Jarl. The victors divided Norway between them.

Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (983). Vinland (America) seen by Bjarne, and visited by Leif and others, 986-1011. See p. 281.

Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015–1030, in whose reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf (1035–1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opslo (Christiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (10661069), Olaf (1069–1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Conquest of the Orkneys and Hebrides; of Dublin. Death of Magnus in Ireland.

§ 5. SPANISH PENINSULA.

755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova,

founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Abd-er-Rahman III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Yussuf), summoned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain.

Christian Kingdoms.

Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the Duero by Álfonso III. in the tenth century, called the kingdom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon.

Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, originally a county of Asturia.

Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees: first a county under French supremacy, then independent. Sancho I. assumed the title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated

Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre.

1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his kingdom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms in Spain 1, Castile-Leon; 2, Navarre; 3, Aragon. must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent after the time of Charles the Bald.

We

Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died

1099).

14