Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf had inherited in 1376. After Olaf's death in 1387 Margaret (1387– 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar and endured until 1814. At the Union of Čalmar (1397) Sweden was united with the two kingdoms.

§ 6. SPANISH PENINSULA.

Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were confined to the kingdom of Granada.

1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Minho, granted as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called himself King of Portugal (1140).

Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). Leon and Castile separated again (1157); finally definitely united (1230).

About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took their names from the cities guarded by them: 1. San Jago di Compostella (Galicia), 2. Alcántara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on the Guadiana.

§ 7. THE EAST.

Eastern Empire.

1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the Comnenes.

1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus.

1204-1261. Latin empire (p. 216).

The Mongols.

1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols conquered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated southern Russia.

Temuchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the

1241. Battle of Wahlstatt, against the Germans under

Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria.

The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was under their sway till 1480.

1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. Their immense empire separated into Khanates, (China, Khanate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran, etc.)

India.

1206-1500.

The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori (p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became an independent sultanate under Kútab-ud-dín, sultan of Delhi (12061210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty (1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mongol invasions. Allah-ud-dín, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jelál-ud-dín, his uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Guzerat. Capture of Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. After the death of Allah-ud-din (1316) revolts occurred which were suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who transferred their residence to Tughlakabad. Tuglath was succeeded by his son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to purchase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mohammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah (1350-1388).

1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timúr Shah. Allah-ud-din had extended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Mohammedan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon involved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, when it was broken up into five kingdoms.

China. 1101-1398.

The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaoutsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them; they did so and expelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou

tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars, or as they now called themselves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang.

The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) * his son Ogdai (1227–1241) continued the work of conquest. 1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by his brother,

1259-1294. Kublai Khan,

Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illustrious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243).

The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note: Yuenching (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, until Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Chooyuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed under the name of

himself

emperor

1368-1398. Hung-woo,

the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary.

Japan. 1156-1392.

1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsuné, founded a power in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle

occurred in the

1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura,

near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their name to the present day.

Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kugé in Kioto undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied throughout the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the prov

inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, who shared the government of the province with the civil governor, and were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was appointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the power of the Minamoto.

1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the Hojo ascendency was Tokimasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended in 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiwara, who held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of the sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose family it remained until 1333.

Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after embassy had demanded submission and been repulsed; the last, in 1279, was beheaded.

1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars.

Destruction of the armada by a typhoon; defeat and massacre of the survivors upon the island of Taka.

By this repulse Hojo Tokimuné won great praise; he was, indeed, a man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado until a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashigé and Nitta Yoshisada, which ended in the

1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the extermination of the Hojo family.

For a time (1333–1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319–1338) was monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly found authority.

Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival Mikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun.

1336-1392. War of the Chrysanthemums,

between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations.

During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at Kioto) feudalism reached its full development. The country was divided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as fiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of these military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as fiefs. The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed by the daimios, and the kugé was left to abject poverty.

FOURTH PERIOD.

FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 1270-1492.

§ 1. GERMANY.

1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Kyburg,

landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, the burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollern.

Strict enforcement of the public peace. War with Ottocar, king of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hungarians, and had inherited Carinthia and Carniola. Ottocar was put under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottocar agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, but received Bohemia and Moravia again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the

war.

1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthia, given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carinthia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law.

Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against Eberhard of Würtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohenstaufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Würtemberg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia descended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Hapsburg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs held immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his successor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop,

1292-1298.

Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted to the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of Thuringia and Meissen (in opposition to the brothers Frederic 1 and Diezmann). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz,

1 The title "with the bitten cheek" appears to have been a later invention; his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederic II., by the surname "the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried. der Freidige, 1868.