jury, of man and his soul after death. In this new doctrine Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda, but nevertheless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worship of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night; reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of Ahuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athaô, fire), by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, formed a distinct hereditary class; an institution which was copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, which came to them from Bactria, through Media.

About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bactria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet Firdusi (about 1000 A. D.).

As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expeditions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, became permanently subject to Assyria.

640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians.

640-558. Median Empire.

The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 708-655. Dejõces (Anïóíns, old Pers. Dahyauka), to whom is ascribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatana. He does not appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians. His son,

655-633. Phraortes (Ppaóprns, Pers. Fravartis), was the first who united the whole country under one ruler and established the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, although their native ruler Achæmenes (Hakhamanis), who was raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from Assyria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and bequeathed it to his descendants.

After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 15) his son,

633-593. Cyaxăres (Kvačάpns, Pers. Uvahksathra) succeeded him and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of the Scythians. After their departure (about 626? see p. 15), Cyaxares subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of Lydia (p. 21).

606 (625?). Cyaxares, in alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylonia, captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the death of Cyaxăres was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. His son,

593-558.

Astyages ('Aoruάyns), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of

the family of the Achæmenida in the Persian tribe of the Pasargada, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, deposed Astyages. The supremacy passed (558) from the Medes to the Persians.

Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent; of Cyrus through his mother Mandăne, daughter of Astyages, which is adorned after the Oriental manner, with the dream of Astyages, the interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and recognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpăgus, his treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger.

According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astyages was named Amytis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of Astyages and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort.

558-330. Persian Empire founded by

558-529. Cyrus (Kupos, Pers. Kurus).

Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over the Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia (p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (554?), Cyrus advanced on Sardes, defeated Croesus in a second battle on the Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Croesus, and deprived him of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and adviser (554).1

The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to burn Croesus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, who had formerly received valuable presents from Croesus, betrays a purpose of bringing Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the command of the Persian faith, not to contaminate the sacred fire. Probably Crœsus wished to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, according to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the Lydian story, the sun-god Sandon does not accept the offering, but puts out the flames with rain.

Cyrus returned to Ecbatăna. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly repressed. Mazăres and Harpagus made the Grecian coast cities tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Phocæans migrated to Corsica; driven thence (see. p. 19) they went to Elea (Velia) in Bouthern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lycia.

539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians.

After

a siege of nearly two years (diversion of the Euphrates) Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire was incorporated with the Persian; the Phoenicians and Cilicians

1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Duncker (Book viii., chap. 6), gives 549.

retained their native rulers under Persian supremacy; the Jews were sent from Babylon back to Palestine (p. 11). 529. Cyrus, who was occupied during the last nine years of his reign with wars against the eastern peoples, fell in one of these expeditions. The story of his death, like that of his birth, has been poetically adorned and variously related. According to one tradition, probably of Median origin (Herodotus, I. 202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tomýris, the queen of the Massageta, whose son he had overcome by deceit. She thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skinbag of blood that he might "drink his fill of blood." According to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound which he received in a victory over the Derbices. The son and successor of Cyrus,

529-522.

Cambyses (Kaußúons, Pers. Kambujiya), con quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7).

525. Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward Ethiopia; failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to turn back. The tyrant of Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cambyses, but a projected attack upon Carthage by sea was prevented by the refusal of the Phoenicians to lend their ships (p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the temple of Jupiter Ammon (Oasis Sivah).

Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis 2 (?), and manifested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and proclaimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 522. Bardija (Gr. Zuépdis), who had been murdered at Cambyses'

command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most influential of whom,

521-485. Darius (Aapelos, Pers. Darayavus), son of Hystaspes (Vistaçpa), was made king.

The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line of the Achaemenida (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and Bardija) and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son, Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85.)

Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopýrus, in order to deceive the Babylonians.)

518 (?). Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Parthia, etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus.

1 According to Brugsch, 527.

2 See on this point Brugsch, Hist. of Egypt, II. 289 ff., who, by the genealogy of the Api, showed the improbability of the story.

513 (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians with a land force of 700,000 men. The fleet of the Greeks of Asia Minor was conducted by the tyrants of the Ionian cities. Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister (Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of provisions induced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued by the faithfulness of Histicus of Miletus (against the advice of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent from Egypt.

66

Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence of the Great King” (βασιλεύς τῶν βασιλέων, μέγας βασιλεύς, Pers. Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyanâm, whence the modern Persian Shahinshah). Ecbatana in Media was the summer residence. Erection of a new royal palace at Persepolis in Persis, where ruins with inscriptions and sculptures have been discovered, as well as at Susa. At Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings.

Divine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants was the final purpose of the state. Maintenance of a costly court, with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which Ramessu II. had begun and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap (Persian Khshatra-pati, i. e. "lord of the province"), with regal accommodation in palaces surrounded by extensive gardens (Paradisia). Subject cities or tribes, and indeed whole nations, enjoyed their own laws and separate administration, under native though dependent princes.

500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by Histicus of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and summoned to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras. With the assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and burned. The Ionians, defeated by the Persian army, were abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The Ionians were again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of Darius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris.

493 490. War of Darius against the European Greeks (p. 56). Great preparations for a new expedition against Greece. Revolt among the Egyptians.

485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son,

485-465. Xerxes I. (épens, Pers. Khshayarsha).

480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son murdered by Artabanus, captain of the body-guard. The second son of Xerxes,

465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called Makpóxεip, Longimanus, succeeded to the throne.

462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under Inărōs, assisted by

the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megabyzus (Amyrtœus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal decay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Mercenary troops. The son of Artaxerxes,

424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, by his brother,

Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name

424-405.

Darius II., Nothus. He was under the influence of his wife Parysatis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained their independence for sixty years (414-354).

405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked the king in the neighborhood of Babylon.

401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in personal combat with his brother.

400.

Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon (Anabăsis). 362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Phoenicians and Egyptians

suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp

tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 338-336. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a greatgrandson of Darius Nothus in his place.

336-330. Darius III., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. War with Alexander of Macedonia; Darius murdered by the satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela (331).

330.

Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 4th period, p. 74.

§ 8. PARTHIANS.1 Turanian? 2

Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of a tribe of the Daha (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was succeeded by his brother Tiridates as

247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of Parthia. His son,

214-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates I.) accomplished but little of importance. The son of the latter,

1 Rawlinson.

2 The use of this name must not be understood as implying belief in the racial unity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family.