to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by Maximilian's general, Tilly (Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, born 1559, in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mansfeld (April, 1622), defeated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administrator of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Höchst (June, 1622), and again at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623).

1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic V. and the Upper Palatinate; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the present in pledge.

2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony.
1625-1629.

Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provisioned by a system of robbery.

Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined Bethlen Gabor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian of Brunswick had died in June of the same year.

Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Brunswick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). Wallenstein alone conquered Schleswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens defending themselves heroically for ten weeks.

May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter received his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put under the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands.

1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution: 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias

tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. This affected two archbishoprics: Magdeburg and Bremen; twelve bishoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lübeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen, Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the possession of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion; all other "sects were to be broken up. Be ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League.

1630. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon).

The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallenstein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too powerful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a large part of the army.

1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers and Guastalla. The former, supported by France (Richelieu himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap

tured Mantua.

3. Swedish Period (1630-1635).

1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on July. the coast of Pomerania.

Object and grounds of his interference: protection of the oppressed Protestants; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives; the rejection of his mediation at the peace of Lübeck; anxiety in regard to the maritime plans of the emperor.

Political position of Sweden: Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus; Curland was under Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost made the Baltic a Swedish sea.

Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu).

Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. Negotiations with his brother-in-law, George William, elector of Brandenburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to maintain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. Meanwhile

1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathedral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command).1

Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities

1 Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined portion of the defenders (Falkenberg). Cf. Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874.

and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face.

1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld.

Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Würzburg, Hanau, Frankfort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. Winter quarters.

Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boytzenburg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held fruitless negotiations with the Saxons.

At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war and the Swedish alliance was already chilled.

1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-three years old.

Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingolstadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian.

1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg.

July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's intrenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from Leipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes).

1632. Battle of Lützen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus.1

Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of SaxeWeimar.

Bernhard, Gustavus Horn, and Banér took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish

1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lauenburg, is totally unfounded.

chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). League of Heilbronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Höchstädt, drove back the Bavarians under Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Würzburg and Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied the upper Palatinate.

Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Negotiations with Oxenstierna.

Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and then plundered Lusatia.

Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter quarters in Bohemia.

Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his command. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, Gallas, and Aldringer, at Pilsen), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredo) from his cause. Ilow, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 1634. Imperial proclamation: "Friedland was concerned in a conJan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief

officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the

Feb. 25.

Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it; but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished "to bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was done, he rewarded the murderers with honor and riches. 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, and Gallas and the Bavarians (John of Werth), over the Swedes at Nordlingen.

1635. Peace of Prague, May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confiscated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the possessor forever; all others should remain for forty years (from 1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were on Nov. 12, 1627.‍ 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the disturbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate; common cause to be made against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of worship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates accepted the peace.

4. Swedish-French period (1635–1648).

The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstierna, that of France by Richelieu († 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar only, with whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of Franconia, which he had lost by the battle of Nördlingen. Capture of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his army.

1636. Victory of the Swedes under Banér at Wittstock over the imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His

son,

1637-1657.

Ferdinand III., was desirous of peace.

The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). After the death of Banér (1641) Torstenson became commanderin-chief of the Swedes.

1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688).

1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A congress agreed upon.

1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated the imperialists under Piccolomini.

Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmark. Hence

1643-1645. War between Denmark and Sweden.

1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, SaxSept. ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Schles

wig, and invaded Jutland.

Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall Guebrianí, had penetrated to Rottweil (Würtemberg). Guébriant fell in battle. Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werth, and totally defeated.