the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the universities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the resignation of Sir Thomas More (1532).

The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pronounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and secured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess.

1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes

sors "Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535).

Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his successor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia

ment.

1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal.

1536. Publication of Tyndale's translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, under authority from the king.

1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence.

1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy: 1. Transubstantiation; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity; 5. Necessity of private masses; 6. Necessity of auricular confession.

1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased.

1542. Ireland made a kingdom.

1542.

War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the

Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss.

James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary,

1544.

but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with France, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased; property of guilds confiscated.

1547.

Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in the event of failure of issue by all of his children.

1547-1553. Edward VI.,

ten years of age; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Repeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doctrines.

1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth.

Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament;
introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second,
1553).

Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord
Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550).
cution of Somerset (1552).

Exe

1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI, July 6, 1553.

The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumberland meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor.

1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Philip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction ("The Spanish marriage") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The suppression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an accomplished scholar (Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor.

1554, July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip.

1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants (Bonner, bishop of Lon

don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this persecution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate (1556).

1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 1558, Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of Guise.

Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558.

1558-1603. Elizabeth.

Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legislation of Mary; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the church; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayerbook.

1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis with France. Calais to be April 2. ceded to England in eight years.

On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, assumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Elizabeth and the Scottish reformers.

1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates.

1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. (John Knox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 1572.)

1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the fortytwo published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment of the Anglican Church (Church of England, Episcopal Church); Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, partially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyterians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of Canterbury (1559).

1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re

nounced for 220,000 crowns.

In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her favorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowledge of the queen.1 Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated Mary at Carbury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Lochleven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from captivity; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1568).

1 Gaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Mary and Bothwell has been recently defended by John Watts De Peyster.

1575. Elizabeth declined the government of the Netherland provinces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. 1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 1583-84. Plots against the queen. (Arden, Parry); Spanish plot of Throgmorton; execution of the earl of Arundel for corresponding with Mary. Bond of Association.

1585. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir Philip Sidney.

1586. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena; rescue of the Virginia colony (p. 290). 1586. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered by the secretary of state, Walsingham; execution of the conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed Feb. 8, 1587.

1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet (Howard, Drake, Hawkins), July 21-29, and destroyed by a storm off the Hebrides.

1597. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone; the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subjugated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed by his execution (1601).

1600. Charter of the East India Company.

March 24, 1603.

Death of Elizabeth,

William Shakespeare, 1564-1616; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; Edmund Spenser, 1553–1599; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536; Ben Jonson, 1574–1637.

1603-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal Union of England and Scotland.

1603-1625. James I.,

as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large kingdom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops ("no bishop, no king"). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly conditioned; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by political and constitutional questions.

1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24; he entered London