Ministry of April 15 (1837), Molé without Guizot. Union of Guizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris (May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12–1840, Mar. 1), without Guizot, Thiers, Odilon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt of Mehemet Ali (p. 491).

1840. Second adventurous attempt of Louis Napoleon.

He sailed from Margate with only fifty adherents to Bologne, where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of peers, and condemned to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham under the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846).

The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the prince of Joinville, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15); anger of France. Fall of Thiers.

1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot.

Death of the duke of Orléans (1842, July 13). Trouble with England Tahiti (Pritchard); Spanish marriages (1843-44). Demand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensée immuable). During this reign development of the parties: Legitimists (count of Chambord); Orleanists; Bonapartists; Republicans. 1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February.

Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned (Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orléans († 1842) and the princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orléans in the chamber of deputies. (L'émeute était devenue une révolution.) Provisional government at the Hôtel de Ville (Dupont de l'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, Marie, Crémieux, Arago, Garnier-Pagès, the elder). Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress) with a view to the " organization of labor," but accomplished nothing practical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution for the new democratic republic. Establishment of costly public workshops (ateliers nationaux) and recognition of the "right to work." 1 Establishment of the garde mobile.

1848-1851 (1852). France (for the second time) a republic.

June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of June) in Paris in consequence of the closing of the ateliers. Bloody fights in the

1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their proJector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times, p. 113, where authorities are quoted.

streets. Murder of archbishop Affre and of general Bréa. General Cavaignac clothed with dictatorial power. The continued efforts of the troops and the national guard subdued the insurrection of the laborers. Nov. 4, constitution of 1848.

Dec. 20. Proclamation of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as president of the republic (5,327,345 to 1,879,298 votes).

1849, Apr.-Aug. Expedition to Rome.

Legislative assembly (one house) with a monarchical majority. Death of Louis Philippe at Claremont (1850, Aug. 26).

1851, Dec. 2. Coup d'État of Louis Napoleon, who, in complicity with St. Arnaud, Maupas, Morny, etc., caused the leaders of the republicans and Orleanists (Cavaignac, Charras, Changarnier, Lamoricière, Bedeau, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and others) to be surprised in their dwellings at night and imprisoned, dissolved the (second) national assembly (1849-1851), annulled the constitution which he had sworn to defend, crushed (with some shedding of blood) the revolt which broke out in the streets of Paris on Dec. 3 and 4 in consequence of these measures, and summoned the whole people to a general election (plébiscite). This resulted in the election of Dec. 20, 21. Louis Napoleon as president for ten years

by a majority, it was asserted, of more than six million votes. The president was clothed with monarchical power, and permitted to issue a constitution. By a decree of Jan. 9, 1852, the president arbitrarily banished his most important opponents; by a decree of Jan. 14 he established a constitution like that of the first empire (sénat, corps législatif, see p. 464). A third decree confiscated the appanages of the house of Orléans, and compelled the members of this house to sell their whole private property in land in France within a year. Freedom of the press restricted.

1852, Dec. 2-1870. Napoleon III., emperor of the French. Proclaimed by a senatus consultum, Nov. 7, and ratified by a plébiscite (Nov. 21, 22), with 7,824,189 votes against 253,145. Napoleon recognized by all European powers. Assertions of peaceful intentions with regard to Europe, particularly in an address at Bordeaux ("L'Empire c'est la paix"). Napoleon III. married (Jan. 29, 1853) the Spaniard Eugénie Montijo, countess of Téba. Birth of the prince imperial, 1856, Mar. 16.

1854-1856. Crimean war (p. 499) ended by the

1856, May 30. Peace of Paris (p. 501). The empire at its height of power and respect.

1857. French expedition to China (p. 501).

1858, Jan. 14. Orsini's attempt upon the life of Napoleon III. Bombs. Orsini, under sentence of death, urged Napoleon to undertake the liberation of Italy (Orsini's "Testament," published in the Moniteur). Loi de sûreté générale, allowing the government to arrest and banish, in certain cases, without trial (Feb. 19). Meeting of Napoleon III. and the Sardinian minister Cavour. Marriage of the prince Napoleon Bonaparte (geneal. table, p. 466) with Clotilde, daughter of Victor Emmanuel

1859. Austro-Sardinian war.

1860, Nov. 24. Decree allowing the address to the throne, and creating ministers without portfolios.

1861. Debates permitted to be inserted in full in the Journal Officiel. 1861-1867. Mexican expedition (p. 503).

1867. Great Exposition at Paris.

1867. Luxembourg question (p. 511). 1867. Expedition to Rome (p. 511).

1869, May. New elections; for the first time during the second empire active participation of the parties and a large vote. The government received a good majority. In Paris and Lyons, victory of the ultra-radical party.

1870, Jan. 2. Ministry Ollivier. Repeal of the loi de sûreté. Alteration of the constitution by senatus consultum and plébiscite, Apr. 20, May 8. (5,679,000 majority for the government, large vote of no in the army.)

1870-1871. Franco-German war, p. 513 fol.

1871-x. France (for the third time) a Republic.

During the siege of Paris the numerous socialist party had made several attempts to seize the supreme power, which had been frustrated by the troops and the national guard. After the capitulation the workingmen had, under various pretexts, got possession of several hundred cannon, and converted the northeastern part of the city (Montmartre and Belleville) almost into fortresses. The attempt of general Vinoy, commander of the city, to repossess himself of these arms led to a general

1871, March 18. Uprising of the Commune (murder of generals Lecomte and Thomas), and, after the defection of several regiments, to the

March 28-May 22. Rule of the Socialistic Commune (Blanqui, Pyat, Flourens, Delescluze, Cluseret, Rossel, etc.). Seat of the regular government, Versailles. The comité des internationalistes held a reign of terror in Paris. Spoliation of the churches. Several million "advances" exacted from the Bank for the payment of the armed mob called the National Guard, whose ranks were swollen by socialists of all nations. The march upon Versailles ended in a shameful retreat, the insurgents being fired upon from Mont Valérien. Arrest of archbishop Darboy and other "hostages," afterwards murdered. Proclamation resolving France into a number of municipal republics.

April 6-May 22. Second siege of Paris

by marshal MacMahon, commander of the troops of the national assembly, on the south and west sides, the German troops preserving a strict neutrality in the forts which they occupied on the northeast.

Bombardment of the southern forts, and the city itself, by the Versailles troops from the parallels which the Germans had constructed. Meantime socialistic violence in Paris. Destruction of the house of Thiers, and overthrow of the Colonne Vendôme, May 16, 1871 (re erected 1874).

May 21. The Versailles troops entered the city through the Porte St. Cloud, of whose unguarded condition they were apprised by a Parisian. Bloody contest against barricades (May 21-28) in the heart of Paris. The commune caused the principal buildings of Paris to be set on fire. (The Tuileries, a part of the Palais Royal, the library of the Louvre, the whole of the Hôtel de Ville, the palace of the Legion of Honor, the building of the ministry of finance, etc., actually destroyed.)

1871, May 28. Bloody suppression of the insurrection; executions en masse; 40,000 or 50,000 socialists captured, or afterwards arrested. The leaders court-martialed; many shot, many transported to New Caledonia.

1871, Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the republic for the session of the national assembly.

May 10. Definitive treaty of Frankfort (p. 520).

1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, in England. May 24. Thiers forced to resign by a parliamentary coalition of the monarchical parties (Legitimists, Orléanists, Bonapartists). Marshal MacMahon elected president by the national assembly. Nov. 19.

After the attempt at a restoration of the monarchy under Henry V. (count of Chambord) had failed, marshal MacMahon was entrusted with the regency for seven years (sextennat) under the title "President of the Republic.' 1873, Oct.-Dec. Trial of Bazaine in the Trianon at Versailles before a court-martial, the duke of Aumale (fourth son of Louis Philippe) presiding. Bazaine was condemned to degradation and death, but the sentence was remitted to twenty years' imprisonment. Bazaine conveyed to the island of Ste. Marguerite, near Cannes, whence he escaped in the summer of 1874.

1875, Feb. After a long struggle between the parties in the national assembly a republican constitution was finally agreed

upon.

The legislative power was exercised by two chambers: the chamber of deputies, which was elected by direct elections and manhood suffrage for four years, and the senate (300 senators: 75 for life, elected by the national assembly, and afterwards by the senate itself; and 225 elected for nine years by electoral colleges, composed of deputies, councils of the departments and districts, and delegates of the communes). The executive power was entrusted to a president, who, after the expiration of the septennat (above), was to be elected by the senate and chamber of deputies united in a national assembly for this purpose, for seven years, and at the expiration of his term of office should be again eligible. The president, who governed by a responsible ministry, exercised almost all the rights of a constitutional monarchy, but could be impeached by the chamber of deputies before the senate for high treason.

1875, Dec. After the adoption of a new electoral law (scrutin 1 d'ar

1 By the scrutin d'arrondissement, the voters in each district voted for one delegate only; by the scrutin de liste (favored by Gambetta), the voters of each department voted for the whole list of delegates from that department. — MÜLLER, Political History of Recent Times.

rondissement), the national assembly, which had been in session since 1871, separated.

1876, Jan., Feb. The new elections resulted in a senate composed half of republicans and half of the three monarchical parties, while in the chamber of deputies the republicans had a decisive majority. Dufaure ministry (March), Simon ministry (Dec.).

1877, May 16. Simon ministry displaced by the arbitrary act of MacMahon ("coup d'état"). Broglie ministry. Protest of 363 members of the lower house against the action of the president.

Sept. 4. Death of Thiers (1797-1877).

1877, Oct. New elections. Maintenance of the republic.

In spite

of the return of a republican majority, MacMahon formed a royalist ministry (Rochebouet). As the house refused to deal with such a ministry, formation of the ministry Dufaure (republican).

International Exhibition.

1878.
1879, Jan. 16.

Pardon of over 2,000 communists.

1879, Jan. 30. MacMahon, involved in inextricable conflict with the chamber of deputies, resigned his office, and was succeeded by Grévy.

1879, Jan. 30-x. Jules Grévy president of the republic. Gam

betta succeeded him as speaker of the house. Ministry of Waddington. Amnesty for communists. Removal of the legislature from Versailles to Paris. Secularization of education; debate and agitation over the bill introduced by Jules Ferry, minister of public instruction, limiting the influence of religious orders in education (§ 7: total exclusion of unauthorized religious orders from giving instruction). Ministry of Freycinet (1879, Dec.). 1879, June 1. Death of prince Louis Napoleon in South Africa. In spite of the nomination in his will of prince Victor, son of Jerome (son of the king of Westphalia), the latter (“PlonPlon") was generally recognized by the Bonapartists.

1880, Mar. 30. Proclamation disbanding the order of Jesuits. June. General amnesty for convicted communists. (Rochefort.) Sept. 19. Ministry of Jules Ferry.

Nov. Expulsion of unauthorized orders from their religious houses. 1881. Expedition to Tunis, ostensibly to punish marauding border tribes, and to uphold the claims of the Société Marseillaise to certain lands in Tunis, resulting in an attempt to establish a protectorate over Tunis. Complications with Great Britain, Italy, Spain.

Nov. 13. Ministry of Gambetta (Foreign Affairs); M. Paul Bert, minister of public worship.

1882, Jan. 30. Ministry of M. Freycinet (Foreign Affairs); Leon Say (Finance); Jules Ferry (Public Instruction). Gambetta, having been defeated on a motion to adopt the scrutin de liste, had resigned Jan 27.

Jan. Failure of the Union Générale (founded 1881).