banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinea, and waged successful war against the Achæan League. Arātus sought aid against Sparta from the Macedonian king Antigonus Doson, and delivered the Acropolis of Corinth into his hands.

The Spartans were defeated in the

221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laconia).

Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon the Spartans an alliance with the Achæan League, now under Macedonian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards involved in a war with the Ætolian League, during which the Spartans took sides against the Achæans, and Peloponnesus was horribly ravaged (220-217).

About this time the Etolian League formed an alliance with the Romans against Philip V. (III.), of Macedonia, who was allied with Hannibal. (First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, p. 116).

Philopomen, who has been called "the last of the Greeks,” became Strategus of the Achæan League in 207, and defeated the Spartans under their tyrant, Machanīdas, in the

206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achæan League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. (III.), who, after the battle of Cynoscephala (197), was forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advancement of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be frequently appealed to as arbitrators.

After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nabis, Philopamen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reënter the Achæan League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the instance of Deinocrates (183). After the death of Philopomen, decline of the power of the Achæan League, which made a final exertion in the so-called Achæan war against the Romans, which ended with the

Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth.

The Corinthians were sold as slaves; a part of their land was given to Sicyon; the rest became the property of the Roman state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kindness, and for the most part retained their own administration and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province under the name of Achaia.

§ 3. ROMAN HISTORY.

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY.

(See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.)

Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to the Macra and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the whole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Polybius (about 150); it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Augustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and Lower Italy.

I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the Athesis or Atagis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Verbānus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Benācus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercella (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bracata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Comum (Como); Mediolanum (Milano, Milan); Ticīnum (Pavia), on the Ticinus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verōna, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispadana: Placentia (Piacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia.

II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Silărus and Frento in the S., was usually divided into six districts: Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhenum, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Adriaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a separate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marrucini and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts of the Sabines, Paligni, and Marsi.

1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a confederacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisa, Volaterra, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi), Volsinii, Tarquinii, Falerii, Care, Vei.

2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini: Roma, on the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Calius, Esquilinus; colles: Viminalis, Quirinalis). On the southern summit of the Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the Tarpeian Rock; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Monēta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum (the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, with the speakers' platform (Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martius, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Cæsar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urbs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, partially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and the church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome in various directions: Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to the W., etc.

Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings; under the emperors a second harbor, Portus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitræ not far distant, Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia

In the land of the Equi, Præneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hernica, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, Fregella, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptine marshes. In the land of the Aruncii: Formia, Minturnæ, on the Liris (Garigliano); Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager Falernus (famous wines).

1 The expression "seven-hilled city" applies properly to old Rome, the palatine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican Rome is the result of a later misunderstanding. The description of the city of the time of Constantine, leaves out the two colles, Quirinalis and Viminalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. See Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, I. 116, note.

3. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Sinus Pastanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: Liternum; Cuma (Kóun, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Eubœa in 1050 ?); Misēnum near the promontory of similar name; Puteoli (Puzzuoli); Baie near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place; Parthenope or Palæopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (NeάToλis, Napoli, Naples); Herculaneum and Pompei, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Pæstanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an immense amphitheatre; Nola.

4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentinum, Iguvium, Spoletium.

5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum.

6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sabini: Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust; Cures, Reate. In the land of the Paligni: Corfinium; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; Esernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Malventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculæ Caudina).

III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna Græca ('EXλàs ʼn μeyáλn), was divided into four districts: Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium 1 in the west.

1. Apulia Luceria, A (u)sculum Apulum, Canna, Venusia, birthplace of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria Brundisium (Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tápas, see p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pæstum (Posidonia, Пoσedwvía), with notable ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('Нpáкλela). 4. Bruttium: Sybaris (Zúẞapis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians; Thurii afterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (Kpórwv), not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (Aokpol 'EniCeppio); Rhegium ('Phylov, i. e. rent, from hyvμ, the present Reggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento).

Italian Islands.

Sicilia (Kela), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with its three capes, or promontories: Pelōrum in the north, Pachynum in the south, and Lilybæum in the west. On the eastern coast from north to south: Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium (Taormina), Catăna (Catania) at the base of Etna, Syracusæ (Zupákovσai, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also called Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipole, at first a suburb.

1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. D., gave Bruttium the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that time as Apulia.

On the south coast: Camarina, Gela, Agrigentum ('Akрáyas, now Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera; Selinus (Zeλivoûs). On the west coast: Libybæum, Drepănum, Eryx. On the north coast: Panormus (Пávoрuos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, Myla. In the interior of the island: Henna.

Sardinia (Zapo): Carălis (Cagliari).

Corsica (Kúpvos): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. Of the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insula Egates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybæum. 3. The Insula Æolice (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipăra, north of Sicily. 4. Capreæ, now Capri, and Ænaria, now Ischia, at the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, Pandataria. 6. Ilva, now Elba.

RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS.1

The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian elements. In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state religion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital.

The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deification of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove few fancies about them.

The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods and men;" Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth, where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Hercules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mercurius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea.

Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates. presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc.

1 Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist. of Rome, chap. IV.