Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, prayers, sacrifices, games, of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the pater familias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king.

The state maintained at public cost: 1. "Colleges of sacred lore having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifices, four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the action made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the flamines and vestales. College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who consulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College of Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations between the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclusion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of declaration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile territory.1 Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution.

2. Colleges of officiating priests: Flamines, who presided in various temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred shields of Mars (ancilla). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. perci, Fratres Arvales, etc.

Lu

Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, (Feb. 15th), Feriæ Latina, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.2

At the extreme south the Iapygians. Their descent is not certainly established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the remnants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization.

1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made this a matter of diffi culty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and into this the spear was hurled.

2 Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, I. chap. 2.

To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants of central Italy, the Italici proper, who were divided into the Latin and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next of kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latini occupied the western lowlands (Latium, connected with latus),1 the Umbro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part of Central Italy (Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Marsi, Hernici, Volsci). A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain region which was named after them, and drove back the Iapygians. From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campānians, called after the plain (Campus) which they settled along the Tyrrhine sea.

Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language, religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the IndoEuropean family and the Etruscan language closely related to the Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure.2

Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two different tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Rætian Alps, while the other came by sea.

Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians.

The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 500 B. C.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians south

ward.

Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the Hellenes, in Sicily and Lower Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcidians (i. e. Ionians), and Eolians were principally engaged therein).

Roman History can be divided into five periods.

753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Central and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wars. 264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the universal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch of the civil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actium.

1 The Ausonii (Aurunci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin race, as well; also, perhaps the Italici in the narrower sense, who dwelt originally in the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi.

2 W. Corssen, Ueber die Sprache der Etrusker, 1874. W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschungen, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. Müller, Die Etrusker, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1877.

31 B. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Cæsars, down to the fall of the Roman Empire of the west.

The last period extends into Medieval History.

FIRST PERIOD.

Mythical Epoch of the Kings (7531-510).

Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. King Numitor of Alba Longa, the descendant of Eneas, who had settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his throne by his brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the line of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather Numitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's permission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Parilia, April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after himself, Roma.2

Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of modern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Roman story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the name Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the name of the city and the people. All tribal heroes are of divine origin; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of agriculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the exposure of the twins and of their miraculous preservation and recognition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan Æneas ascribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of

1 According to Varro's era 753, according to Cato's 751; but to change years of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minuend. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 89. 2 Livius, I. 1-7.

3 Compare besides Mommsen, Schwegler, Röm. Gesch., and Peter, Röm Gesch., I. 56.

Grecian writers (Stesichorus in the sixth century, Timæus in the third century, B. C.). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants from Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naïve attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy Roman Campagna by connecting it with the common metropolis of Latium.

Nothing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement. The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances. The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile character of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the supposition that Rome in its earliest days "was a border trading-post of the Latins."1 Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after the manner of Corinth and Carthage; it was merely a trading village, where the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an agricultural district, were exchanged.

The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual to a degree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships (Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnes (identical with Romani), the Titi (ens)es, and the Luceres), the first was certainly, the third in all probability, Latin; the second was, it is true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin elements, as the Roman language shows.

The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.2 753-716. Romulus,

warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Appointment of 100 Senatores or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are called Patricians. The three centuries of knights: Ramnes, Titi(ens)es, and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines following, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War of Romulus with Fidence and Vei. Romulus is translated during a thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 715-673. Numa Pompilius

of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of the Romans according to the advice of the Camoenas (prophetess) Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five Pontifices, the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flamines, 1 Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 2 Livius, I. 8 foll.

Fetiales, the four Augures, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased to six.

673-641. Tullus Hostilius,

warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the Horatii and Curati decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to submit. War with Veii and Fidena; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the inhabitants are transferred to Rome.

641-616. Ancus Marcius,

grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike ("et Numæ et Romuli memor"). Development of the institution of the Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marcius is represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the founder of the class of the plebeians.1 Fortification of Janiculum, construction of a bridge of piles (pons sublicius) over the Tiber. Foundation of the harbor of Ostia.

616-578. Tarquinius Priscus,

who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, and for whom Grecian descent from the Bacchiada of Corinth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and was elected to the throne. Commencement of the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloaca. The Senate increased to 300 members; the number of equites doubled. Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus, 578-534. Servius Tullius

becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Vei. Rome joins the Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius Tullius murdered by his son-in-law,

534-510. Tarquinius Superbus,

represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Ponetia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains possession of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle at Delphi. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Collatia), by the king's son, Sextus, leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend makes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 1 Peter, Röm. Gesch., 1.8 33. Compare. on the other hand, p. 90.