RYAN-RYE-GRASS.

RYEHOUSE PLOT-RYSWICK.

the forets awnless or nearly so; the culm flattened, from one foot to three feet high; the root producing leafy barren shoots, which add much to the agricultural value of the grass This grass is highly valued for forage and hay, and is more extensively sown for these uses than any other grass, not only in Britain, but on the continent of Europe and in North America. It grows well even on very poor soils. The Common Perennial R. is the kind most generally cultivated. A kind called Annual R.-not really an annual plant, although useful only for one yearis sometimes cultivated; but is, in almost every respect, inferior.-ITALIAN R. (L. Italicum, or L. multifloram, or L. Bouchianum), a native of the

1, Common Rye-grass; 2, Italian Rye-grass.

assassinate the king on his return from Newmarket. The deed was to be perpetrated at a farm belong to Rumboldt, one of the conspirators, called the Ryehouse Farm, whence the plot got its name. The R. P. is supposed to have been kept con ealesi from Monmouth, Russell, Shaftesbury, and the rest of those who took the lead in the greater conspiracy. It owed its defeat to the circumstance, that the house which the king occupied at Newmarket tik fire accidentally, and Charles was thus obliged to leave that place eight days sooner than was expected. Both the greater and lesser conspiracy were discovered before long, and from the connec tion subsisting between the two, it was dithe ult altogether to dissever them. The indignation excited by the R. P. was extended to the woe Whig party; Lord Russell, Algernon Sine y, azi Lieutenant-colonel Walcot were brought to the block for treason; John Hampden, grandson of his more noted namesake, was fined 40,000; and scarcely one escaped who had been concerned in either plot.

RYOT (from the Arabic raaya, to pasture, to protect, to govern; hence, literally, the governed, a subject) is the vernacular term for a Hindu caltivator or peasant.

RYOTWAR (literally, according to or with ryots) is the term applied to the revenue settlement which is made by the government others in India with each actual cultivator of the soul for a given term-usually a twelvemonth-at a st palated money-rent, without the intervention of a thuri party. This mode of assessment prevails eley, though not exclusively, in the Madras presidency. See H. H. Wilson, Glossary of Judicial and Revenus Terms (Lond. 1855), under RAIYATWAR

RYSBRACH, MICHAEL, a sculptor of considerable talent, born at Antwerp in 1693 Ho settled in London in 1720, and executed numerous works there, in particular the monuments to r Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey, and to the Duke of Marlborough at Blenheim, a bronze equestrian statue of William III. for the city of south of Europe, is much esteemed as a forage and Bristol, a colossal statue of George II. for the parade hay grass. In many soils and situations in Britain at Greenwich Hospital; a Hercules, and busts of it succeeds extremely well, and is remarkable for its many of the eminent poets, wits, and politicians of verdure and luxuriance in early spring. It is pre- his time. Scheemakers, also a native of Antwerp ferred by cattle to the Common Rye-grass. The and Roubilliac, a Frenchman, were contemporaries young leaves are folded up, whilst those of the and rivals of his, and shared with him most of the Common R. are rolled together.-There are many commissions for works of sculpture in England at varieties of Rye-grass. It is nowhere so much the period. With Scheemakers was placed as a valued or cultivated as in Britain. It was culti-pupil Nollekens, who became so distinguished vated in England before the end of the 17th for his busts, and as one of the founders of the century. Italian R. was introduced into Britain in English school of sculpture. R. died Sth January 1831 by Mr Thomson of Banchory and Messrs 1770. Lawson and Son of Edinburgh. R. is generally sown along with some kind of corn, and vegetating for the first year amongst the corn, appears in the second year as the proper crop of the field.

RYE HOUSE PLOT. In 1683, at the same time that a scheme was formed in England among the leading Whigs to raise the nation in arms against Charles IL, a subordinate scheme was planned by a few fiercer spirits of the party, including Colonel Rumsey and Lieutenant-colonel Walcot, two military adventurers; Goodenough, under-sheriff of London; Ferguson, an independent minister; and several attorneys, merchants, and tradesmen of London-the object of which was to waylay and

394

RY'SWICK, PEACE OF, a treaty concluded in 1697 at Ryswick, a Dutch village between Delft and the Hague, which was signed by France, England, and Spain on September 20, and by Germany on October 30. It put an end to the sanguinary contest in which England had been engaged with France. It has been often said that the only equivalent then received by England for all the treasure she had transratted to the continent, and all the blood which had been shed there, was an acknowledgment of W..iam's title by the king of France; but it must not be forgot how much the allies were benefited by the check given to the gigantic power and overweening ambition of France.

S

S

THE 19th letter in the English and other western alphabets (the 18th in the Latin), belongs to the dental series, and marks the fundamental sound of the hissing or sibilant group, 8, 2, sh, zh. The Sanscrit has characters for three hissing or ssounds; the Semitic languages had four (see ALPHABET). The Hebrew or Phoenician character, from which the modern 8 is derived, was called shin-i. e., tooth, and in its original form probably represented two or three teeth. The same character, with the presence or absence of a diacritic point, marked either s or sh. In Eng, is used both for the sharp and flat sounds, as this, those thoze. = The nearness of the s-sound to th is seen in the Eng. loves = loveth, and in the phenomenon of lisping-yeth This seems to furnish the transition to the so frequent interchange of the High-Ger. 8 for the Low-Ger. t, as in Ger. wasser = = water; Ger. fuss foot. Comp. Gr. thalassa thalatta. The substitution of r for 8 is noticed under R. In such cases as melt, compared with smelt; pike, with spike; lick, with Beek; Ger. niesen, with Eng. sneeze; Eng. snow, Goth. sairs, with Lat. nix (gen. niv-is); Gr. mikros, with smikros; short, A.-S. sceort, with curt-it is difficult to say whether the form with, or that without the s is the older. Grimm considers s as the

yes.

of the Fichtelgebirge (Bavaria), and flowing northward through several minor states, and finally across the Prussian province of Saxony, falls into the Elbe, about 25 miles above Magdeburg, after a course of 200 miles. It is navigable only within the Prussian dominions.

SAA'RBRÜCK, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Saar, 40 miles south-south-east of Treves. It is the seat of an active industry, of which coal-mining, spinning, and the manufacture of woollen and linen fabrics, and of pottery and tobacco, are among the principal branches. Pop. (1862) 11,288, exclusive of the suburb of St Johann, on the left bank of the river, which contains 3360 inhabitants.

SAA'RDAM. See ZAANDAM.

SAAZ, a town of Bohemia, on the Eger, 45 miles west-north-west of Prague. Hops are largely cultivated in the vicinity, and important corn-markets are held. Pop. 5800.

SABADELL, a rising manufacturing town of Spain, in Catalonia, 14 miles by railway north-west of Barcelona. It has risen into importance only within recent years, and it is now the Manchester of Catalonia. Woollen and cotton fabrics are the staple manufactures, and of the 100 factories in the town, by far the greater number are engaged in these manufactures. Pop. about 16,000.

SABADI'LLA, CEBADILLA, or CEVADILLA remnant of an old prefixed particle (as, is, us), having, (Asagraa officinalis, formerly Helonias officinalis), a perhaps, the force of ex in Lat. exopto, I wish Mexican plant of the natural order Melanthacea, greatly; or ur in Ger. urklein, very small. An initial the seeds of which are employed in medicine, before a vowel in Lat. corresponds to Gr. h; comp. because of properties analogous to those of White Lat. sub, sex, sal (salt), with Gr. hypo, hex, hals. In Hellebore (Veratrum album). The plant has a Greek and Latin, s was pronounced feebly at the bulbous root, and grows in tufts; the leaves are end of words, and still more so between two vowels. linear and grassy, about four feet long, and not It thus frequently disappeared in these positions, above a quarter of an inch broad; among them and this was one of the chief sources of the irregu-rises a round scape (leafless flower-stem), about six larities in the declensions and conjugations, which had originally been formed on a uniform system (see INFLECTIONS). The dropping of 8 is one of the ways in which the forms of modern French words have become so degraded; compare Lat. magister, old Fr. maistre, modern Fr. maître; presbyter, prestre, prêtre. Even where still written, final s in French is mostly silent-e. g., vos, les.

SAAD-ED-DIN, a Turkish historian, was born 1536, and died at Constantinople in 1599. His history, entitled the Taj-al-Tuarikh (the Crown of Histories), a work held in high estimation by scholars, gives a general account of the Ottoman empire from its commencement in 1299 till 1520; it has never been printed, but MS. copies of it are found in most of the great libraries of Europe, and n inaccurate translation into Italian was published in 1646-1652. S. also wrote the Selim-Nameh, or History of Selim L., which is chiefly a collection of anecdotes regarding that prince.

SAA'LÉ, a river of Germany, distinguished from other and smaller rivers of the same name as the Saxon or Thuringian S., rises on the western slope

feet high, bearing a very dense raceme, a foot and a half long, of small white flowers. The seed-vessels are papery follicles, three together; the seeds one, two, or three in each follicle, two or three lines long, winged, and wrinkled. The powdered seeds have been known in medicine since the end of the 16th century. On submitting them to chemical analysis, they are found to consist of fatty matter, two special organic acids, to which the names Cevadic and Veratric acids have been given; of varieties of resin, yellow colouring matter, gum, and a highly poisonous alkaloid named Veratria in combination with gallic acid; and to these constituents, a French chemist, Couerbe, has added a crystalline body named Sabadilline.

Notwithstanding its highly poisonous properties, S. is prescribed on many parts of the continent as a vermifuge in cases of tape-worm and ascarides, and it may be administered to an adult in 8 or 10 grain doses, mixed with a little sugar, and a few drops of oil of fennel. In the form of powder, it is some. times applied to the head to destroy lice, but if the skin be broken, some other remedy should be selected, as absorption to a dangerous extent might

SABEANS-SABBATH.

ensue. From its stimulating properties, it is usefully 'doubtless exaggerated. The country itself, according employed in the form of tincture (which, however, ¦ to the reports of Greek writers, grew spice-wood to is not an officinal preparation) as an external such an extent that its odour caused apoplexy application in chronic rheumatism and paralysis, and in cases of nervous palpitation.

The active principle of S., the Veratria, in doses of th of a grain, gradually increased, and taken thrice a day, has been found very efficacious in acute rheumatism; and applied in the form of ointment, it has been highly recommended in scrofulous diseases of the joints. When prescribed internally, its use should be at once suspended if the patient complain of pain in the throat or stomach, vomiting or diarrhoe Similar qualities are said to exist in the seeds of Veratrum Sabadilla, a native of Mexico and the West Indies, and in some of the species of Helonias, natives of the southern parts of North America.

among the inhabitants, and bad smells had to he used to counteract these over-potent influen es The meanest utensils in the houses of these merelaci princes were if we were to credit those writers— wrought in the most cunning fashion, and were of gold and silver; their vases were in rusted with gems, their firewood was cinnamon. Their colon es must, in the nature of things, have extended over immense tracts of Asia-the Ethiopian S. pro ay being one of the first foreign settlements; yet not arg beyond the vaguest conjectures can be given a xas them. Regarding their government, D.o Cass a informs us that they had a king, who never wa allowed to leave his palace, and that the first chal boru, after the accession of a new king, into one of a certain number of noble families, was considered the heir-presumptive for the time being. Comaroe had also done for them what it did for the Phoen cians-it civilised them, and caused them to carry civilisation further; and they stand out among the ancient semi-barbarous Arabs as a commonwealth of high culture. Respecting their religion, see ZABISM. Their language is supposed to have bexa a Semitic (Arabic) dialect, which, however, is almost entirely lost to us now. Some tabts wh Himyaritic inscriptions have been found, bit tor readings are not quite satisfactorily fixed as yet See SHEMITIC LANGUAGES, ARABIA.

SABEANS, the supposed descendants of one, two, or three Shebas mentioned in the Bible. His torically, the S. appear chiefly as the inhabitants of Arabia Felix or Yemen (to the north of the present Yemen), the principal city of which was called Saba, and the queen of which is said to have visited, Solomon, attracted by the fame of his wisdom. Josephus, however (Ant, viii. 6, 5), makes her the queen of Ethiopia (Meröe), and the modern Abyssinians claim her as their own. Her name, according to their tradition, was Makeda; and her visit to Jerusalem mude her not only a proselyte to the religion of Solomon, but she became one of his wives, and had by him a son, Menilek, who after- SABBATH (Heb. Shabbath, Sabha'kon, &e, from wards ruled Ethiopia (q. v.). The Arabs, on the shabath, to rest; not from shub, to return, or dubai, other hand, call her Balkis, the earliest name that seven) designates the seventh day of the work, art occurs of a Himyaritic queen; but there is no more aside, in the Old Testament, as a period of cessat, »a historical value to be attached to this tradition from work. Without entering into the question é than to the innumerable legends that have clustered its origin, i, e., whether it be an institution of ¡reround her name in connection with the great king, Mosaic times-either of paradise' or of his Numerous passages in Greek and Roman writers, thenism'-or whether it be purely Mosaic, we shal as well as in the Bible, testify to the vast impor- merely state that, according to our only available tance of these dwellers in Yemen as a wealthy, source, the Pentateuch, the division of the W widely-extended, and enterprising people, of fine (q.v.) into seven days appears at a very early period, stature and noble bearing. Their chief greatness but the celebration of the seventh day as a day lay in their traffic, the principal articles of which consecrated to Jehovah, is first mentioned after consisted of gold and perfumes, spice, incense and the Exodus from Egypt, and seems to have perded precious stones, a very small portion of which, how the Sinaitic leislation, which merely confirmed and ever, was of home production, Yemen being only invested it with the highest authority. Ou_the productive in corn, wine, and the like matters of occasion of the manna (Ex. xvi. 23, the S. and to orinary consumption. But the fact was, that the solemnity seem presupposed, and the Remember S. held the key to India, and were the intermediate the Sabbath-day of the Decalogue, further seems to factors between Egypt and Syria, which again indicate its previous institution. There is no trace of spread the imported wares over Europe; and even its celebration in the patriarchal times, although tás when Ptolemy Philadelphus (274 B. C.) had estab-Semitic traditions of the creation, and of the divas lished an Indian emporium in Egypt, the S. still completion of it on that day, had und abtedly remained the sole monopolists of the Indian trade, marked it early as a special day of sanctity arm ug being the only navigators who braved the perilous the Abrahamites. The significance that was sacr voyage. As in many other respects, they also added to it after the Exodus, 1. e, that of besz a resembled the Phoenicians in this, that, instead of remembrance of the freedom from bondage, makes informing other people of their sources and the it appear likely enough that its first legal promis tracks of their ships, they told them the most gation dates, as a Talmudical tradition has it, from preposterous tales about the countries they visited, Marah, where Moses set them laws and nosta and the fearful dangers they encountered; and in (Ex. xv. 25). While it thus oa the one hand to rued regard to most things, endeavoa ed to impress a sort of general human memento of the creat, a upon the minis of their customers that what they and the Creator of all things, as it is characterismi sold them was, if artificial, their own manufac in the first redaction of the commaniments in ture-if natural products, home growth. Being Exodus, it became also, on the other hanʻi, a natioai the principal merchants of those things which the day of record of the bordage and the liberation from over-refined luxury of late classical times consi-it, a notion prominently brought forward in the dered as absolute necessitics of life, they could not second recension of the Decalogne (q. v. › Deat. v. fail to gather enormous riches; e. g., in the 3d c. 15), and the rest' that was inculcated for everyo of the Roman empire, every pound of silk-a | body-kindred, strangers, slaves, even anmaismaterial enormous quantities of which were used-received a double meaning. It is in the latter that came from Arabia was paid by a pound of silver, sense also denominated a sign between Jehovah at tunes eveu of gold. As a natural consequence, and the generations of Israel (Ex. xxxi. 13: a komi the S. became luxurious, effeminate, and idle. The of badge of nationality, a token of the covenant pictures of them drawn by the classic writers are between Jehovah and Israel for ever (EL III 16

SABBATH.

ef. Ezek. xx. 12, Neh. ix. 13, &c.). It is constantly those who had fled into caves to escape the per mentioned together with institutions of the same secution of Antiochus Epiphanes, allowed thempeculiar nature; such as reverencing the sanctuary selves to be butchered wholesale, nay, burned (Lev. xix. 30), celebrating the feasts of a national alive, without any attempt at flight or resistance; character (Hos. ii. 11), keeping the ordinances (Ezek. because they made a conscience to help them xlv. 17), &c. And in like manner it was made one selves for the honour of the most sacred day' of the first obligations for proselytes, as one by (2. Macc. vi. 11). It was only in consequence which they were taking hold of the covenant' (Is. of these horrible catastrophes, and in consideration Ivi. 61. A few special cases only are furnished by of the probability of the enemy's always choosing the l'entateuch in explanation of the word 'work' the hallowed day for his attacks, and thus gradually used in the prohibition-lighting a fire, gathering rooting out the nation, that fighting in self-defence sticks, going out of the camp for the purpose was allowed; although it appears the enemy was of gathering manna. The violation of this law of not to be disturbed in his siege works. Yet this) rest was, as a crime of high treason against Jehovah, relaxation in favour of the defensive appears again puni hable with death; yet cessation from labour to have been abrogated through the influence of the was only the negative part of the celebration of the fanatical Chassidaic party. Both Pompey and Herod, day, which is called, like the other festivals, a it would seem, took advantage of the S. for the holy convocation.' It is difficult to decide now preparation of the storm on Jerusalem, relyingwhat precise meaning is to be attached to these and successfully-on the strict observance of that words, as referring to the early periods of Israelitish day by their antagonists. The incessant tribula history, particularly before the institution of the tions, however, that followed almost without_interprophets or sacred orators had been fully devel- ruption till the final destruction of the Jewish oped. It may be conjectured that the convocation empire, together with the influence of new schools was a kind of general religious assembly, in which and views, wrought an immense change. Shammai readings and some kind of exposition of the law himself, the austere interpreter of the law, and formed the principal features; and there is indeed the so-called antagonist of the milder Hillel, a tradition to that effect recorded in the Talmud. pronounced not only the defensive but the offenSome, however, suppose that it was a festive meet- sive legal and righteous (Sabb. xix. a): as, indeed, ing in honour of Jehovah, and refer to Neh. viii. in his days, human life was placed, under all 9-18 for proof that such a celebration was con- circumstances whatsoever, higher than any divine sistent with Jewish notions of keeping days holy or human precept about the Sabbath. The Law,' to the Lord. As a further celebration of the day, it is said with regard to the S., was given, accorda special burnt-offering, consisting of two lambs of ing to the Scriptures, like other laws, that man the first year, with the corresponding meat and should live by them, not that he should die drink-offering, besides the ordinary daily sacrifice, through them' (Tos. Shab. xvi. 5). That Joshua was instituted, and the shew-bread was renewed in had never stopped in his sieges on the S., was not the sanctuary. considered so weighty an argument as the dire and imminent necessity that forced itself upon the military and spiritual leaders of the people, of preserving at all hazards a remnant at least of the fast perishing nation.

Thus far the Pentateuch on the Sabbath. Turning to the later biblical books of the times before the Exile, we find casual references to it as a day of rest and joy, exalted over the other days of the week, and on which agricultural labours and all things connected with them, such as carrying loads, selling and buying, &c., ceased. No deeper signification seems to have been attached to it yet. Although both Jeremiah and Ezekiel, single it out especially, in common with monotheism and the laws of Dorality, yet they both rest satisfied with the inculcation of its outward observance, which seems occasionally to have fallen into entire disuse. With the return from the Exile, however, a new phase was mangurated. It is well known how energetically Nehemiah carried out his reformation, or rather the restoration of the primitive laws, as in other respects so with regard to the S.; how he testified' against those who were treading wine-presses on the S., and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses, &c., and, further, against those men of Tyre' who brought 'all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath unto the children of Judah and in Jerusalem.' It is by profaning the S., he urges, that their fathers have caused all the evil and wrath that befell the nation and the city. He had the gates shut from Friday evening to Saturday night, and drove away those merchants who still kept lodging outside, by threats of laying hands on them.'

What Nehemiah had reinstituted, seems to have been most rigorously upheld, and in many cases made more binding even than he ever intended it, or, at all events, than the originally promulgated form of his words would seem to imply at first sight. With respect to the S. in particular, we find it But more than 100 years afterwards kept with sach severity that the people would not even stir in defence of the city of Jerusalem, stormed by the soldiers of Ptolemy I. on that day. Later still,

It was probably after the Exile that the first attempts at legally fixing, or rather 'fencing about' the divine ordinance in a minute and rigorous manner, were made. As we have seen before, no special definition of the 'work' prohibited-save in a few instances-is to be found in the Old Testament. Whether it was the 'men of the great synagogue,' or the later schools, that promulgated the special precepts and prohibitions-part of which were traced to the legislation on Sinai itself (Oral Law)—is difficult to decide. The Mishna only enumerates thirty-nine principal ('father- ') works, each of which, again, carries a certain number of minor (begotten') works with it, which are strictly forbidden on the Sabbath. A certain portion of these inhibitions and prohibitions refers to work connected with agriculture and the chase; another to domestic labours generally performed by women (such as spinning, sewing, &c.); another again to trades (of builders, mechanics, labourers, &c.) and the like. One of the most harassing of precepts, and one which had at last to be amended by a number of new enactments, was the prohibition of moving things from one place into another (from public to private localities, and vice versâ). The minor prohibitions referred chiefly to things which might easily lead' to the violation of the S., such as riding on horseback, climbing trees, &c. The Sabbath-day's journey,' or prohibition, based on Ex. xvi. 29, of walking more than the supposed utmost space between the ark and the extreme end of the camp, seems to belong, in the Mishnaic form at least, to the Roman times; the mil to which it was limited, and which contains the requisite 2000 yards, being a Roman measure.