SAW-MILL-SAXE.

vary much in the antennæ. Both pairs of wings are army on the Rhine, under the Duke of Berwick, divided by nervures into numerous cells. Among he signalised himself at the siege of Philipsburg the more notable species is the CORN S. (Cephus pygmaeus), which, in its perfect state, abounds on umbelliferous flowers, a shining black insect, marked with yellow, the abdomen elongated. The larva consumes the inside of the straw of corn, and descending to the base of the straw, cuts it down level with the ground.-Another important species is the TURNIP S. (Athalia spinarum), reddish, spotted with black; the larva nearly black, and known by the names of Black Jack and Nigger. The Turnip S. is sometimes very troublesome and destructive for a year or two, and then almost completely disappears for a number of years. It has sometimes been very destructive to the turnip-crops of Britain.-The S. of the Pine (Lophyrus pini) is a common British species, and sometimes, although not very often, strips pine and fir trees of their leaves.

SAW-MILL. Within the present century, the art of working saws by machinery has been invented, and large mills for cutting up timber by means of large saws worked by machinery, are to be found in most civilised countries. They are worked both by steam and water-power, and in Holland, wind-mills are made to work sawing machinery. The arrangements of a saw-mill are very simple: they consist of a fixed horizontal frame, with rollers at short intervals, upon which the tree or log of timber is laid; at the end of this, another frame is placed in a vertical position; it contains as many saws placed side by side as it is proposed to cut planks out of the log, and they are set as far apart as the desired thickness of the planks or boards. A rapid up-and-down motion is given to these saws by the machinery, and at the same time the log is pulled forward on the rollers by the same power, so as to be kept constantly up to the saws. In this way, a large tree or log of wood may be cut into twenty planks in much less time than was formerly required by laborious hand-labour to cut one single

thickness.

The circular-saw is also much used in mills for cutting planks and boards into pieces of almost any

form.

SAXE, HERMANN MAURICE, COUNT OF, one of the greatest warriors of the 18th c., was the natural son of Augustus II. (q. v.), Elector of Saxony and king of Poland, and the Countess Aurora von Königsmark, and was born at Goslar, 28th October 1696. When only twelve years of age, he ran off from home, made his way to Flanders, joined the army of Marlborough, and took part in the capture of Lille and the siege of Tournay. With a boyish love of change, he joined the Russo-Polish army before Stralsund (1711), and after the taking of Riga, returned to Dresden, where his mother induced him, in 1714, to espouse a young and amiable German heiress. In the two following years, he took part in the civil war then raging in Poland; | but having quarrelled with his father's favourite minister, he returned to Dresden, where the wellgrounded jealousy of his wife made his life sufficiently disagreeable. Obtaining the annulment of his marriage, and a pension from his father, he came to Paris in 1720, where he devoted himself for some years to the study of military tactics, and originated and developed an entirely novel system of manwhich was highly spoken of by the Chevalier Folard, the celebrated military engineer. In 1726, he was elected Duke of Courland, and for a time maintained himself in his new possession against both Russians and Poles, but was compelled to

œuvres,

(1734), and decided the battle of Ettingen by a
desperate charge at the head of a division of grea
diers. For these services, he was made a lieuten
ant-general in 1736; and on the breaking out of
the war of the Austrian Succession, he obtained the
command of the left wing of the army which was
appointed to invade Bohemia, and took the strongly-
fortified town of Prague by storm with marvellous
celerity. The capture of Egra was similarly effected
a few days afterwards, and the rest of the campaign
shewed that his abilities in the field were not
inferior to his skill against fortifications.
In 1744,
he was made a marshal of France, and appointed to
command the French army in Flanders, and on
this occasion he gave decisive proofs of the sound-
ness and superiority of his new system of tactics,
by reducing to inaction an enemy much superior in
number, and taking from him, almost before his

face, various important fortresses. The following
year was for him more glorious still; his army was
reinforced, and though so ill with dropsy that he
had to submit to tapping (15th April), he laid siege
Duke of Cumberland to its relief, took up a position
to Tournay on the 22d, and on the advance of the
at Fontenoy, and awaited attack. He was assailed
on the 11th May, and the desperate valour of the
English for a time bore down everything before
them; but S. sped about in his litter, encouraging his
troops, and when the critical moment came, the
fire of his artillery disorganised the English, and a
months afterwards, every one of the numerous
charge of the French completed the victory. Four
strong fortresses of Belgium was in his hands. In
1746, S., by a series of able manoeuvres, threw back
the allies on the right bank of the Maese, and
gained (11th October) the brilliant victory of
Raucoux, for which he was rewarded with the title
of marshal-general, an honour which only Turenne
Laufeldt (24 July 1747), the victor of Culloden
For the third time, at
had previously obtained.
suffered complete defeat at the hands of S., whose
full play; and the brilliant capture of Bergen-op-
favourite system of tactics was again brought into
zoom brought the allies to think of peace. The
Dutch, however, were still disposed to hold out, tili
the capture of Maestricht (1748) destroyed their
hopes, and the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle followed.
S. had previously carried on a correspondence with
the great Frederick of Prussia, and he now took
occasion to visit him at Berlin, experiencing the
most brilliant reception. In the following year,
Frederick wrote to Voltaire: I have seen the hero
of France, the Turenne of Louis XV.'s time. I have
received much instruction from his discourse on
the art of war. This general could teach all the
generals in Europe.' S. lived at his estate of
Chambord for some time afterwards, and died there
of dropsy, 30th November 1750. His work on the
art of war, entitled Mes Rêveries, was published at
Paris in 1757.

S. was probably the greatest captain of his time, and a gallant and enterprising leader, but he was a mere soldier, and the offer of membership made to him by the Académie Française is sufficiently ridiculous. S. had, however, the good sense to decline the proffered honour, and he did so in a sentence, the extraordinary orthography of which accidentally rebuked, more than the most cutting sarcasm could have done, the mean sycophancy of the Académie. He wrote: 'Ils veule me fere de la cademie; sela m'iret come une bage a un chas.'

Many biographies of S. have been written, but few of them are to be much depended upon.-See Moritz von Sachsen (Dresden, 1863), by Karl

SAXE-ALTENBURG-SAXE-MEININGEN.

Weber; and the Nouvelle Biographie Générale (art. of Gotha it assumes a more inclement character.

Saxe). His character and genius are also well, though not flatteringly, portrayed in Carlyle's Life of Frederick the Great.

Agriculture is the principal occupation of the people, and is pursued with energy and skill; corn and flax being produced in abundance, as also putat wa and various leguminous plants. The breevung sé SAXE-ALTENBURG, the smallest of the minor horses, cattle, and sheep is also successful y a 5Saxon states, is a duchy bounded by Saxe-Weimar, ducted. The mineral wealth includes coal (enedy Prussian Saxony, the kingdom of Saxony, Saxe- in Gotha), iron, cobalt, manganese; a' martie, Meiningen, and Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and separ- porcelain-earth, millstones, and salt. The man:ated into two nearly equal parts by the interposed factures are not of much importance, and are principality of Reuss-Gera The eastern portion, chiefly confined to Gotha There is a large bent. or circle of Altenburg, from its being watered by sugar factory at Gotha. The extensive forests of the Pleisse, was formerly called Pleissengau. It the duchy employ a large proportion of the we contains 241 English sq. m., with a pop. (1863) lation in the production of pitch, tar, and p tank of 91,375. The western part, or circle of Saal- The duchy is a limited monarchy, in accor tanne Eisenberg, is watered by the Saale, with the with the fundamental law of 3d May 1852 Orla and Rode, and contains 262 English sq. m., and Gotha have each a landtag, or diet: that f with a pop. (1863) of only 47.657. Total area, 503 the former consisting of 11, and of the latter of 19 sq. m., with a pop. of 139,062, one-third of whom deputies; besides which there is a common lan tag are inhabitants of towns. The vast bulk of the for the whole state, composed of 7 of the Cobur population are Protestants, there being in 1858 and 14 of the Gotha representatives, who are elet i only 800 Catholics and 1400 Jews, almost none of by their several diets. The mode of election to tre the latter settled in the country. The eastern por- separate diets is peculiar, being effected by electom tion is open, undulating, and very fertile, and agri- equal in number to the members to be chosen, culture has here attained considerable perfection, elector being appointed for that purpose by a sena and is diligently pursued by a large proportion of rate district. The diet endures for 4 years, sa the population, so that much more corn is produced must never be prorogued for more than 6 months than is necessary for home-consumption. The There are two ministers for carrying on the gavim peasants in this circle, though speaking the Thurin; ment, one for Coburg, and another for Gotha Te gian dialect, exhibit in their dress, manners, and duke has a vote in the plenum, and shares the customs a family resemblance to the Wendish-12th vote in the little council of the German det speaking Serbs of Lusatia; and numerous names of places, especially those ending in itz, indicate their Slavic origin. They are celebrated throughout Germany for their skill as agriculturists, and their superior intelligence, knowledge, and comparative wealth. The revenue amounted in 1863-1864 to £46,190; and the expenditure, including the duke's civil list, to the same sum. The military force The finances of the two portions of the duchy tre consists of 1473 men, who form two battalions of the separately administered, that of Coburg being xa 4federal army. S. is a limited monarchy, in accord-lows-receipts (1865), £39,564; expenditure, 239219, ance with the constitution of 29th April 1831, modified somewhat by the events of 1848-1849. The assembly of deputies, consists of 24 members, 8 representing the landed proprietors, 8 from the towns, and 8 from the country. The government is in the hands of a ministry of three. Altenburg (q. v.) is the seat of government.

The military contingent consists of 1302 na reserve of 372, and the same number of suber tites making in all 2046 men, who form one regiment of two battalions in the federal army, and are be the convention of July 1, 1861, under the authoty of, and maintained by, Prussia. Education is wel attended to.

public debt, comprising £29.400 of paper mines,
£151,859; and of Gotha, receipts (1865), 289762,
balancing the expenditure; debt, including £70 uni
of paper-money, £160,652. The revenue 165 d
the ducal domains is £99,136, and the expert
£25,090. The present ducal family is distingan d
among the German princely families for the sparntei
and liberal character of its members, as well as for
physical and mental gifts. It is allied with several
of the royal families of Europe, the present d kes
elder brother having been the late Prince Art
of Great Britain; one of his cousins, the hush,
Queen Maria II. of Portugal; and his uncle, Lastnik,
king of the Belgians. The heir-apparent to the
duchy is Alfred, the second son of Queen Vatera
of Great Britain.

SAXE-CO'BURG-GOTHA, the third in point of size and population of the minor Saxon states, is a duchy comprising the duchy of Gotha, lying between Prussia, Schwarzburg, Hesse-Cassel, Meiningen, and Weimar, and containing 542 English sq. m. (inclusive of Nazza, an isolated portion on the north-west, 14 English sq. m., and Volkenrode, on the northeast, within Prussia, 25 English sq. m.), with a pop. (1861) of 108,301; and the principality of Coburg, 18 miles south of Gotha, lying between SAXE-MEININGEN, the second in wre and Meiningen and Bavaria, and containing 210 English population of the minor Saxon states, is a dnrav, sq. m. (inclusive of Königsberg, in Bavaria, 19 consisting of one large crescent-shaped territory, English sq. m.), with a pop. (1861) of 47,014. which lies immediately north of Bavana and Total area, 752 English sq. m.; pop. 155,315. Coburg, with the horns of the crescent port: Gotha lies on the north side of the Thuringer-wald, northwards, and contains 862 English si in which extends along and within its southern fron-a pop. (1861) of 159,868, and two small satel tier; but the rest of this duchy consists of low, territories, Kranichfeld (23 English sq. m. ** undulating, and very fertile land, and is watered by 3144)-consisting of four detached portione va the Werra, an affluent of the Weser, the Unstrut, a the north, between Weimar and Schwarmure tributary of the Saale, and several smaller streams. Rudolstadt-and Kamburg (53 English sq. m, pon Coburg lies on the southern slope of the same range, 9329), on the north-east, between Were ar is watered by the Itz and Rodach, affluents of the Prussia; total, 943 English sq. m; por LĨN Main, and has extensive forests, and many beautiful 172,341, of whom 169.570 are Protestarts, sc valleys between the spurs of the Thuringer-wald. Catholics, 82 Mennonites, and 1547 Jews Te Of the surface of the whole duchy, ths is arable, crescent is composed of the old duchy of Meningen, ths is wood, th waste land, and the rest pasture the old duchy of Hildburghausen, and the pres and gardens. In the plains and v...eys, the climate pality of Saalfeld (both of which, aling is mild and salubrious, but in the mountainous parts | Kamburg, were annexed to Meiningen in 1936

SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH-SAXIFRAGE

SAXE-WEI'MAR-EI'SENACH, the largest of the minor Saxon states, is a grand duchy, consisting of Weimar, which lies between Prussia, Altenburg, and Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and contains (inclusive of Allstädt, on the Unstrut, within Prussia, 45 English sq. m., and Ilmenau, in the south-east of Gotha, 32 English sq. m.) 685 English sq. m., with a pop. (1861) of 140,772; Eisenach, the western portion, which lies to the north of Meiningen and Bavaria, and contains (inclusive of Ostheim, in the Rhön-gebirge, in Bavaria, 23 English sq. m.) 461 English sq. m., with a pop. (1861) of 82,444; and Neustadt, which lies on the western boundary of the kingdom of Saxony, and contains 239 English 84. m., with a pop. (1861) of 50,036; total area, 1385 English sq. m.; pop. 273,252, of whom 262,272 are Protestants, 9824 Roman Catholics, 57 Greek Catholics, 1088 Jews; the Jews and Catholics SA'XIFRAGE (Saxifraga), a genus of plants of being chiefly in Eisenach. The Eisenach portion is the natural order Saxifragea, or Saxifragacea. This traversed in the north by the Thuringer-wald, and order has a calyx, usually of five sepals more or less in the south by the Rhön-gebirge, the intermediate cohering at the base; a corolla usually of five districts being also hilly and undulating, and perigynous petals, alternate with the sepals, rarely watered by the Werra and its feeders, the Fulda,|wanting; perigynous stamens; a hypogynous or

SAXO-GRAMMATICUS SAXON STATES.

perigynous disc; an ovary, usually of two carpels, cohering more or less by their face, but diverging at the apex; fruit generally a 1-2-celled capsule, the

P. E. Müller, and finished by J M. Velacher (Copen. 1839). It is furnished with a comete critical apparatus. There are good translations inm the original Latin into Danish.

SAXON ARCHITECTURE, the style of bld. ing used in England before the introduction of the Norman architecture at the Conquest. There are few specimens remaining which can be depended upon as genuine. The Saxons built chiefly in wo and all their wooden edifices are now lost. It seems probable that a rude and simple style, not une Early Norman, was that used by the Saxons. There

Saxifrage (S. stellaris).

cells opening at the ventral suture, and often divaricating when ripe; the seeds usually minute and numerous. The order Saxifrage is sometimes regarded as including above 900 species, divided into several suborders, which are elevated by some botanists into distinct orders-leaving, however, more than 300 species to the reduced order SAXIFRAGEE, which contains herbaceous plants, often growing in patches, with entire or divided alternate exstipulate leaves, natives chiefly of mountainous tracts in the northern hemisphere, and often found up to the limits of perpetual snow, some of them forming there a rich and beautiful turf, and adorning it with their very pleasing flowers. A considerable number are natives of Britain. Some of the genus Sarifraga are well known in gardens, and are employed to cover rock-works, &c. S. umbrosa, London Pride, or None-so-pretty, is familiar in all cottage gardens. It is a native of the hills of Spain,

and of the south and west of Ireland.

SAXO-GRAMMATICUS (ie., Saxo the 'Grammarian' or 'Scholar'), the most celebrated of the early Danish chroniclers, flourished in the 12th c., and was secretary to Archbishop Absalom. He is said to have died at Koeskilde in 1204. S.

undoubtedly formed his style on that of the later Roman historians, particularly Valerius Maximus, yet in his whole mode of representation, he belongs to the school of medieval chroniclers, although ranking first in that school. Erasmus half wondered at his elegance. Moreover, it adds mightily to our respect for S., that although a cleric, he did not in the very least degree allow himself to be swayed in his historical conceptions by the prejudices incident to his profession. His work is entitled Historia Danica, and consists of 16 books. The earlier portions are of course not very critical, but in regard to times near his own, S. is a most invaluable authority. According to his own statement, he derived his knowledge of the remoter period of Danish history-the Heroic Age' of the North-from oli songs, Runic inscriptions, and the historical notices and traditions of the Icelanders; but he is not sharply critical in his treatment of the Danish sagas, although a rudimentary critical tendency is occasionally visible. The best edition of the Historia Danica is that undertaken by

Tower of Earl's Barton, Northamptonshire

(From Parker's Glossary of Architecture., are several buildings in England which Mr Rakman considers entitled to rank as Saxon. Amongst these, the Tower of Earl's Barton, Northamptonshire, one of the best examples. The peculiaring and short' work of the quoins, the projecting its running up the face of the walls and interlacing like wood-work, and the baluster-uke sharts betwea the openings of the upper windows, are a charac teristic of the style.

SAXON LAND. See TRANSYLVANIA

SAXON STATES, MINOR. The cat tation of Wittenberg, which followed the rout of Merg (see SAXONY), and deprived John Frederick the Magnanimous of the electorate of Sax. t the same time despoiled him of a large part af the hereditary possessions of the Ernestine beana The remainder, amounting-after the a of Coburg, Altenburg, Eisenberg, &c., in 1.54to little more than one-firth of the whe SL # territory, was divided into two portions, S and Size- Weimar, the former fang to Ja Frederick II., and the latter to John W...am, the two sons of the deposed elector. Each of the past ca was afterwards subdivided, the former into Su Coburg and Sare-Eisenach, and the latter 153 ate Sare- Weimar and Saze-Altenburg. It bewilder the reader to attempt to follow the endar subdivisions and reunions that followed Sucea

SAXON SWITZERLAND-SAXONY.

to say, that the gradual adoption of the law of Pious intrusted to some celebrated Saxon singer. primogeniture during the 18th c., and the extinction This unknown poet lived, as his language leads us of various cadet branches, has left the four states to conjecture, somewhere between Münster, Essen, of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Mein- and Kleve. His work is not only the almost sole ingen, and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, as described monument of the old Saxon tongue left us, but is under their several names. Should the Albertine, also of high poetical value, through its warmth of or Saxon-royal line become extinct, the Duke of feeling, and the strength and splendour of its diction Weimar succeeds to the throne; and failing his-worthy, indeed, to take its place alongside the family, the lines of Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, contemporary Anglo-Saxon and old Norse poetry. and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha obtain in this order the-See Vilmar's Deutsche Alterthümer im Heliand right of succession. (Marb. 1845).