Egyptian shoemakers at work, with the tools of their profession beside them. The first workman is piercing with his awl the thong at the side of the sole, through which the latchets were passed; before him is a low sloping bench. The second workman is equally busy sewing a shoe, and tightening the thread with his teeth. It appears from one of the figures over the first workman that the bent awl of the modern shoemaker is of extreme antiquity. In one of the Greek dramas, allusion is made to the daily earnings of the shoemaker; and we know from historical record that the streets of Rome were encumbered with the stalls of shoemakers in the reign of Domitian. The shoe of the ancient Hebrews was a species of sandal. For ladies, the sandal, translated shoe,' in the Scriptures, was highly ornamental: How beautiful are thy feet with shoes, O prince's daughter' (Cant. vii. 1). Ornamented slippers are still a luxury in the East. The footcoverings of the Romans were various in character, from the simple sandal and slipper to the boot, which extended up the leg. When the shoe covered the whole foot, it was termed calceus; the calceus of a particular form and of great strength worn by the Roman soldier was known as caliga. From wearing these shoes, the common soldiers were designated caligati. The Emperor Caligula was so called from having worn caligula, or little boots, when he served as a youth in the ranks of the army. Usually, the calige of the soldiers were studded with hob-nails.

Reference is made in Scripture to different symbolical usages in connection with sandals or shoes.

The delivery of a shoe was used as a testim transferring a possession: A man plucked shoe, and gave it to his neighbour: and the wai testimony in Israel' (Ruth iv. 7). In cases & ta kind, the throwing of a shoe on a property symbol of a new proprietorship or pas 'Over Edom will I cast my shoe' (Psalm 1. From these ancient practices, in which the s was symbolical of contract, perhaps comes the curious old custom in the north of Engi Scotland of throwing old shoes for good lak a bride and bridegroom on departing for the e home. We learn from several passages in the NTestament that the untying of sandals, as virg considerable trouble, was assigned to servante, e unloosening of the thongs, translated accordingly became a symbol of servitule latchet of whose shoes I am not worthy to '-(Luke iii. 16). The carrying of the shows of s is spoken of as a similar mark of inferonity. W shoes I am not worthy to bear' (Matthew

St Crispin and his brother Crispinian have: been regarded as the patron saints of shoeman According to medieval legend, these p

were natives of Rome, and having tea converts to Christianity, traveled France and Britain to propagate Le faith, everywhere supporting thesis making shoes, which they sold to the pr at a very low price-one part legend being that an angel suppl with leather. It is said that they si martyrdom in England towards the of the 3d century. The memory Crispin, of whom we chiefly hear, has, in time immemorial, been kept up by pe sions and other festivities in his bra October 25, which is known as St Urs Day. Under this saintly tutelage, making has attained to the distin appellation of the 'gentle craft;' an! most other mechanical professions, is afor the number of individuals who L risen from it to eminence. See an amus..: scarce work, Crispin Anecdotes The sele and solitary nature of the craft, as conducted, has possibly had some influrace a

Fig. 4.

producing a degree of thoughtfulness, while the act of hammering his leather is carlatel a some imagine, to stimulate the mental energy d the operative. If there be any real virtue a the sitting attitude of the shoemaker, a currangerung

evil attends that method of carrying on his operations. In every profession, sitting at work in a close atmosphere is particularly injurious to health. Statistics assure us that out of 10,000 artisans who sit at their labour, 2577 fall sick, and 95 die, annually; whilst as regards an equal number of those who alternately sit and stand, only 1713 sicken, and 61 die. To remedy this crying evil, a member of the profession, Mr J. Sparkes Hall, London, has invented a simple and inexpensive work-bench, at which shoes, may be made standing. Of this standing-bench, we offer a sketch in fig. 4. A few days' practice, we are told, renders the workman as expert with the standing-bench as if he were seated according to the old plan, and he can execute closing with less fatigue and considerably more cleanliness. The only kinds of work in which sitting is more convenient are rounding the soles, lasting, and fitting, for which a seat may be employed.

The fashion of shoes, as has occurred with other articles of dress, has undergone innumerable changes. At one time, shoes were pointed to an extravagant degree; and in last century, the high heels of ladies' shoes became a monstrosity. Shortly after the beginning of the present century, the most marked improvement was the making of shoes right and left; the substitution of latchets for buckles about the same period was also a step in advance. In our own day, the general disuse of the shoe proper, and the introduction of short ankle-boots, are the chief changes of fashion. A proposal for a more perfect adaptation of shoes and boots to the shape of the foot, is noticed under Foor. The shoemaking trade, as at present conducted in Britain, is divided into two departments-the bespoke and the ready-made or sale business. The larger department hitherto has been that in which customers bespeak boots and shoes by having them made to measure; but it is generally giving way to the plan of buying articles ready-made. The cause of this is exceedingly obvious. The process of measuring is usually very imperfect, owing, among other reasons, to the want of lasts to suit every variety of feet, as well as the too general indifference to meet individual peculiarities. On this account, and even at the risk of purchasing an inferior class of goods, the public are becoming daily more disposed to encourage the ready-made trade. Accordingly, large quantities of boots and shoes in innumerable varieties are now made and supplied wholesale by manufacturers for the retail dealers. Northampton, Stafford, and Leicester are considerable seats of this manufacture

in England; and from certain districts in France, there are increasing importations, chiefly of a cheap kind of ladies' shoes.

The plan of making boots and shoes by isolated workmen at their own homes, has been found quite incompatible with the modern necessities of trade. As in the case of the handloom weaver, the shoemaker of the old school has had to succumb to machinery. After an unsuccessful struggle to oppose the introduction of sewing-machines, these are now coming generally into use, and men are employed in large numbers together in what may be called shoe-factories. This manufacture has long been a staple trade of Massachusetts, in which state the quantity of boots and shoes fabricated annually is numbered by millions of pairs. Recently, a machine has been introduced into the American shoe-trade for fixing the soles to the uppers by means of pegs, the inventor being a person in Salem, Massachusetts. A pair of boots or shoes can be pegged in two minutes. These pegged goods are disposed of wholesale in boxes, and may be seen in retail stores All over the United States. As evidence of the

important character of the shoe-trade in Massachusetts, it may be mentioned that a few years age there were as many as fifteen members of the 'gentle craft' in the legislature of that state.

In the year ending December 31, 1863, the ev ports of boots and shoes from the United King dom were as follows: Wrought boots and shoes, 4,436,734 pairs; wrought of other sorts, 646,442 pairs-united value, £1,539,410. In the same year, the imports were: Boots, shoes, and goloshes of all kinds, 441,739 pairs; boot-fronts, 470,844. The import was free, no customs-duties being now charged on this class of articles.

SHO'LA, the white pith of the leguminous plant Eschynomene aspera, a native of the East Indies. With this substance, which is exceedingly light, the natives of India make a great variety of useful articles, especially hats, which being very light and cool, are in great request. Helmets made of shola are much used by the British troops in

India.

SHOOTING, with intent to wound, is felony in the law of England, and punishable with penal servitude for life. The offence consists in shooting at another, or drawing a trigger, or in any other manner attempting to discharge loaded arms. It is not, however, an offence unless there was a possibility of injuring some person; the intent must not only exist, but the relative situation of the parties must be such that serious injury might have ensued. The extent of the actual wound is immaterial.

SHORE. See SEA-SHORE.

SHORE, in Ship-building, is a strong prop or stanchion placed under the bottom or against the side of a ship, to keep her steady on the slip or in dock. Shores are also used to support or prop up a building during alterations.

SHOREDITCH. See TOWER HAMLETS.

SHOREHAM, NEW, a seaport, and parliamentary borough of Sussex, on the left bank and at the mouth of the Adur, six miles west of Brighton. The town arose when the harbour of Old Shoreham, now a mile inland, became silted up. Pop. of the parish (1851) 2590; (1861) 3351. This increase is attributed to the extension of the ship-building trade here, and partly to the recent discovery of oyster-beds on the south-west coast of the Channel. More than 80 smacks, each manned by five hands, are employed in this parish in the oyster-trade. The parliamentary borough, which includes the Rape (see SUSSEX) of Bramber, contains 32,622

inhabitants.

SHORTHAND, a very useful art, by means of which writing is made almost as expeditious as speaking. In ordinary longhand, many separate motions of the pen are required to form each single letter: thus m requires seven motions, k requires six, h five, t four, I three, &c. But as syllables include vowels as well as consonants, and often two, or even three, and sometimes four consonants occur before or after a vowel, the number of motions requisite to write syllables in longhand is very great. The monosyllabic words long and short, for instance, require respectively fourtzen and seventeen motions of the pen; while such syllables as stream, splints, strength, &c., require from twentyone to twenty-six motions. Abbreviated writing is thus a necessity in all cases where language has to be written from ordinary delivery. Some stenographers make use of the common alphabet, and merely contract words by the omission of letters.

new principle of writing is adopted, by which the positions of all sounded vowels are indicated in the writing of the consonants, thereby securing easy legibility, with brevity and simplicity, in the writing of a known language. This system, the invention of Mr Melville Bell, is based on the following principles:

I. A full-sized character represents a consonant with a vowel sound before it.

II. A half-sized character represents a consonant with a vowel sound after it.

III. A tick-sized, or very small character, represents a consonant alone, and neither preceded nor followed by a vowel.

In this way, all words are distinguished to the eye as monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, &c., without any necessity for interpolated vowel points. The relative size of the letters pt, for example, forming the consonant outline of the words pet, apt, pity, poet, &c., shews the first pair of these words to be monosyllables, and the others to be dissyllables.

Thus:

The importance of this mode of writing will be at once obvious in such words as contain the same consonants with various syllabication, as sport, sprite, spirit, support, separate, aspirate, &c.

To a learner this system offers a very brief and easily read stenography of his own language, so soon as he has learned the alphabet only. The system is of course susceptible of the ordinary methods of abbreviation for the fleet exigencies of the reporter, such as the use of letters for words, special positions for logograms,' &c. Exact vowel marks also are provided for insertion wherever they are considered necessary, as in the writing of foreign words, proper names, &c. The following is Mr

In this arrangement, all breath consonants are written by thin lines, and all voice consonants by thick lines; and no additional characters are used for compound consonants. The essential principle of the system, by which the positions of vowels, or the absence of vowels, are indicated in the writing of the consonants, manifestly dispenses with the neces sity for separate symbols for combinations.

The three different sizes of the alphabetic characters, which express the effect of vowels in this system, are employed with some specific value in all systems. In Mr Pitman's Phonography, for instance, half-sized' consonants are used to denote the addition of t or d to the consonant which is written; while the vowel symbols are in size precisely the same as the characters which, in Mr Bell's phonetic shorthand, represent 'tick-sized' consonants.

The vowel scheme of the latter system furnishes a separate sign for every difference of vowel quality, and the distinction of thick and thin symbols is limited to actual phonetic pairs of long and short sounds, such as are heard in the words full and fool yon and yawn. But, except in monosyllables written in the first or simply alphabetic style, the distinctive vowel signs rarely require to be inserted.

As an illustration of the aspect of the writing in these two phonetic systems, the following sentences are written in the full alphabetic styles :

So. stenog, ma. u. of th. com. alph. & me. contr. wo. by th. om. of let.

This is not properly shorthand; the latter term is limited to writing which is both abbreviated in spelling, and simplified in the forms of the alphabetic characters. Much attention has been paid to this art in Britain during the last 300 years, upwards of 200 systems having been published within that period. The older systems were chiefly founded on orthography, the ordinary spelling of words being represented simply by a set of more convenient symbols for letters. The highest brevity attainable in this way was, however, altogether insufficient for reporting; and consequently, arbitrary signs for words and phrases, and distinctions in the value of characters, dependent on their relative position on, above, or below the line of writing, were largely used. The more modern systems have all been to a greater or less extent phonetic, or representative of sounds instead of letters, the number of sounds into which syllables may be resolved, being considerably smaller than that of orthographic elements.

Of the two classes of elements, vowels and consonants, the latter are the more important for the recognition of words; and these are generally written without lifting the pen, vowels being supplied by dots and other interpolated symbols. In some systems, no attempt is made to discriminate one vowel from another, but only the places where Vowels occur are indicated by a general sign; in others, the five vowel letters have distinctive symbols; and in others an accurate representation of the varieties of vowel sound is aimed at. The degree in which words are recognisable without vowels, may be judged of by the following speci

men :

enabling a writer to save four out of every five motions of the pen, in private memoranda, corTES pondence, &c.

A great impetus was given to the study of shorthand, about 25 years ago, by the publication of M. Isaac Pitman's Phonography. The introductia ¿ the penny postage, at the same period, vastly a led the diffusion of the system, and societies for pho graphic correspondence were established in all parts of the kingdom. The Psalms, the New Testament, and many other works, were published in the bongraphic alphabet, and magazines written in sh hand found a widely-diffused circle of supporters This system of writing is elegant and expediti as to a practised hand, and a very great improvement a all preceding systems. The alphabet consists of the following characters:

The distinction between breath and voice for mute and sonant) consonants, as above shewn, is happy expressed by a thickening of the symbolic line f the latter elements. The characters in the second column are, however, anomalous, the first four,

An indication of where vowel sounds occur without shewing what vowels-will be found to give increased and sufficient legibility to a reader who is acquainted with the language. Thus:

Ch-mb-rz-z -ns-cl-p-d-- a d-csh-n-r- -v -n-v-rs-1 n-l-j fr th p-pl-n th- b-s-s -v th 1-t-st -d-sh-n -v th j-rm-n c-nv-rs-sh-nz l-cs-c-n.

Chambers's Encyclopædia, a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People, on the basis of the latest edition of the German Conversations Lexicon.

Shorthand alphabets consist of simple straight and curved lines, to which hooks, loops, or rings are added. These elements of writing are common to all systems, but the powers associated with the symbols are, of course, different in different systems. Much ingenuity has been shewn by various authors in developing the application of the simple radial and segmental lines of a circle, and the positions of a dot, for the representation of language; ut, in many cases, while a wonderful amount of apparent brevity has been attained-as by writing on a staff of lines, each of which gives a different value to the same sign-the systems are all but impracticable, from the multitude of details with which the memory of the learner has to be burdened. The prevailing fault of such systems of shorthand is, that they are long in being short. Reporters must abbreviate even the simplest possible form of alphabetic writing, but the mastery of a shorthand alphabet for other than reporting purposes, is a very easy matter;

sonants, and the fourth and fifth, written with the distinct formations, which differ from each other difference only of thick' and thin,' representing as d does from g, and both of which are V

placed at the top, the middle, or the bottom of the The vowel marks are written consonant lines. thick for long,' and thin for 'short' sounds. The long and short vowels are not, however, phonetas pairs, differing only in quantity; and thus the vowel scheme is less accurate than that of the consonants. It is, besides, very complex to a beginner, from the employment of a special set of characters for vowels preceded by tr and y, the latter elements not being included in the alphabet of consonants.

In Phonography,' as in almost all other systeme of shorthand, vowels are added by separate Liting of the pen, while their insertion is indispensal je to legibility, unless special modes of writing cops mant combinations are adopted. The latter expedient is employed by Mr Pitman for such compounds as pr, pa, spr, str, nl, mp, &c., the characters for which make, practically, large additions to the alphabet. The use of a general vowel sign would evidently be d little advantage in this system, as it would, equally with the exact vowel marks, require the pen to be lifted for its insertion.

In a more recent system of phonetic shorthand, a