PUMPS. sense, as a means of producing a given result with the least possible expense of power. In those exhi bited in the International Exhibition of 1862, we find a marked improvement. The jury report that a large number of constructers have sought to give the waterways and valves dimensions which render as small as possible the loss of power by friction They have also sought to give a continuous movement to the ascending column of water, indepen dently of the action of the reservoir of air.' discharged in a series of rushes or jerks. As it is a great object to procure a continuous discharge, both for its convenience, and for the saving of the power wasted by the continual acceleration and retardation of the ascending column, various methods have been used for that purpose. The most common is the reservoir of air, which is an air-tight receptacle fixed vertically on the discharge-pipe; the water forced into the pipe by the down-stroke compresses this air, which, acting as a spring, returns this force to the ascending column during the period of the 3. The Chain-pump.-This pump is formed in up-stroke, and so, by taking the blow of the enter-general of plates of wood fastened to an endless iron ing water, and returning it gradually, equalises chain, and moving upwards in a rectangular case or the pressure, and renders box. Fig. 6 shews an example of this pump, which the discharge uniform. was exhibited in the International Exhibition of Another method is the 1862, called Murray's Chain-pump ;' a pump which double-action force-pump, is very much used on public works, on account of by which equal volumes of E B An water are forced into the ascending column by both up and down strokes. example of this is shewn in fig. 5. The solid piston A is worked by a rod B of half the section of the piston itself. During the up-stroke, the upper surface forces a volume of water into the ascending column, and the lower surface draws in twice that volume. In the down-stroke, these two volumes are sent through the pipe E into the receptacle C, communicating with the upper face of the piston. One of the volumes fills the space D, which would other wise be left empty by the descent of the piston; the other volume is sent into the ascending column; so that a volume of water equal to half the content of the barrel is sent into the ascending column by both the up and the down strokes. Fig. 5. A pump exhibited in the International Exhibition of 1862, by Messrs Farcot and Sons, attains this object in a much more simple manner. In it two equal pistons, with valves affording very large water-ways, work parallel to each other in two pump cylinders. During the successive strokes, the first piston draws in water by its upper surface, and delivers it to the ascending column by causing it to traverse the second piston. In its ascending course, the second piston raises in its turn the column of water by its upper face, while the lower face sucks the water, causing it to traverse the first piston.' It will be seen from this description that a valve is placed in each piston, that the cylinders communicate at their base, and that the pistons make their strokes simultaneously. This pump has yielded all the good results promised by its ingenious construction, and it is adopted in the water-supply of Paris. In spite of the great antiquity of the lift and force pump, it is only of late years that improvements have been introduced into its construction capable of rendering it an efficient machine--that is, one which returns in the shape of water raised, a good proportion of the power applied to it. In 1549, M. Morin found by experiments that the power lost was 55 to 82 per cent.-that is to say, that of the motive power, 45 per cent. was yielded in the best and 18 in the worst, giving an average of about 30 per cent. In 1851, the jury, reporting on those exhibited in the Great Exhibition, say that it is one of our worst machines, considered in a mechanical Fig. 6-Murray's Chain-pump. the ease of its construction and erection, and its admirable efficiency even at considerable heights In this pump, the friction is reduced by having only 3 or 4 lifts instead of 20 or 30, as was previously the case. The chains pass under a roller, A, at the foot, and are driven by a small pitch-wheel, B, at the top, over which they are conducted, and which is driven by appropriate gearing. The lifts feather in passing over the wheel to the descending side, and only unfold when brought round to the ascending side; thus the pump is enabled to take off the water with the same dip as other pumps. The pump is not liable to be choked, as a back turn of the chain immediately releases any substance getting between the lift and the barrel. The speed is variable, in proportion to the duty required. The speed at which the chain is ordinarily worked is from 200 to 300 feet per minute. The greatest lift yet made by Murray's chain-pump is 60 feet high; but it is con sidered that 100 tons of water per minute could be raised 100 feet high. From 10 to 12 feet apart has been found to be the best pitch for the lifts; putting PUMPS. them nearer, needlessly increases the friction. Experiments made by Mr Lovick for the Metropolitan Board of Works, shewed that the slip of the lifts which work in the barrel, and are one-eighth of an inch shorter each way than the barrel, averaged 20 per cent. of their motion, and that the useful work done averaged 63 per cent. of the indicator horsepower of the engine working it. 4 The Centrifugal Pump.-These pumps, with reference to those previously described, may be called new, as, though they have been in use in one form or another for at least a century, their merits were not brought prominently forward till the year 1851, when the great efficiency of the models exhibited by Messrs Appold, Gwynne, and Bessemer drew general attention to the subject. leaves the circumference of the wheel, and enters the circular whirlpool chamber F; so that the interior of the pump may be looked on as a whirlpool, extending from the axle of the wheel to the circumference of the whirlpool chamber. Into this whirlpool the water is drawn at the central orifice of the wheel, and discharged by the pipe G at the circumference of the whirlpool chamber; and the force with which it is discharged, or the height to which it will rise in the pipe G, is measured by the centrifugal force of the water revolving in the whirlpool. With reference to the efficiency of these pumps, it is impossible to give any accurate estimate, since as high as 70 per cent. of the applied power is claimed to be returned by forms of the pump shewn in figs. 7 and 8, while some other descriptions experimented on in 1851 gave only 18 per cent. of useful effect. The essential parts of this pump are-1. The wheel to which the water is admitted at the axis, and from which it is expelled at the circumference, It will be evident, from the above description by the centrifugal force due to the rotatory motion imparted to it in passing through the rapidly re- of the pump, that the height to which the water volving wheel; and 2. The casing or box in which will be raised depends entirely upon the speed of the wheel works, and by which the entering water revolution of the wheel; and it is by this that the application of centrifugal pumps is limited to comis separated from that discharged. Figs. 7 and 8 are a section and plan of a cen-paratively low lifts of say less than 20 feet, as the trifugal pump. The water enters the pump by the speed for high lifts requires to be greater than can be conveniently and usefully attained in practice. They are best applied when raising large quantities of water through low lifts. It will also be observed, that on account of the simplicity of their parts, and the absence of valves, they are much less liable than other pumps to be choked by the entrance of solid materials. In some descriptions of this pump, the exterior whirlpool chamber is dispensed with; and to the vanes of the wheel is given such a curvature backwards from the direction of motion, that the water leaving the circumference of the wheel is spouted backwards from the vane-passages with a speed equal to that of the wheel in the opposite direction, so that it has only a radial motion with reference to a fixed object; in other words, that the force is acquired from the radial component of the pressure of the vanes, instead of the centrifugal force of the revolving water. Those pumps, however, give the best results which, as the one above In all cases, described, combine both actions. curved vanes are much superior to straight ones. 5. The Jet-pump.-This pump is worked by upply-pipes A, A, which lead to the central orifices of the wheel B, B; it then passes through the pass-water-power, and is worthy of notice on account of ages C, C, formed by the vanes and the side cover- the extreme simplicity of its parts, and of not ing-plates, D, of the wheel. In passing through requiring the care of an attendant while in opera Fig. 7. Fig. 8-Thomson's Centrifugal Pump. these passages of the wheel, which is made to revolve by power applied to the shaft E, it acquires s rotatory motion, which still continues when it tion. Fig. 9 is a representation of this pump, C is the water which it is required to raise to the level of the water D, and B is the water in the stream The water B available for working the pump. passes down the pipe A, and is discharged from the jet or nozzle, E, into the conical pipe F. Round the nozzle is the vacuum-chamber G, at the bottom of which is attached the conical pipe F, and into the side of which the suction-pipe H enters from the water to be pumped. The water, in passing from the nozzle into the conical pipe, carries air with it, and so gradually forms a vacuum in the chamber G, when the water rises into it from the level C, through the pipe H; and it is in turn carried with the jet down the conical pipe into the dischargelevel D. The velocity of the water coming from the jet is gradually retarded by the action of the conical pipe, the speed decreasing as the area of section increases; and the vis viva of its motion is by this retardation converted into a sucking force, drawing the water from the suction-pipe through the vacuum chamber into the conical pipe. The water issuing from the jet will have a speed equal to that produced by a column of the height BC, or the sum of 11 PUN-PUNCH. the fall and lift. This pump may be viewed, for purposes of explanation, as a syphon, into the shorter leg of which a jet of water is injected, Fig. 9. which overcomes the pressure due to the difference of levels, and reverses the ordinary motion of the water in a syphon. An efficiency of 18 per cent. has been obtained from this pump, which is low, as compared with that obtained from other descriptions of pump; yet in cases where waste of waterpower is not so much to be avoided as expense in erecting, working, and maintenance, these pumps possess decided advantages. The case to which they are peculiarly applicable is the drainage of marshes, which have streams of water adjacent to them descending from a higher level. name of a witty buffoon of Acerra who joined a company of players and became the favourite of the Neapolitan populace. Others give his original name as Paolo Cinella. The variety and inconsistency of the legends shew them to be myths-histories invented to account for the name. The modern P. is only a modification of an ancient Mask (q. v.) to be seen represented on ancient vaces, and taken perhaps from the Oscan Atellana; and the Italian name is pretty evidently a diminutive of pollice, the thumb-Tom Thumb (the dwarfs of northern mythology are sometimes styled duumling, thumkins). The English name Punch is apparently identical with Eng. paunch; Bavarian punzen, a cask; Ital. punzone, a puncheon; and denotes any. thing thick and short (e. g., a Suffolk punch). The name Punchinello seems to have arisen from blending the English and Italian names. The drama or play in which the modern P. figures, is ascribed to an Italian comedian, Silvio Fiorillo, about 1600. The exhibition soon found its way into other countries, and was very popular in Eng land in the 17th century. Its popularity seems to have reached its height in the time of Queen Anne, and Addison has given in the Spectator a regular criticism of one of the performances. The scenes as now given by the itinerant exhibiters of the piece are much shortened from what were originally performed, in which allusions to public events of the time were occasionally interpolated. The following is an outline of the plot as performed in 1813. Mr P., a gentleman of great personal attraction, is married to Mrs Judy, by whom he has a lovely daughter, but to whom no name is given in this piece, the infant being too young to be christened. In a fit of horrid and demoniac jealousy, P., like a second Zeluco, strangles his beauteous offspring. Just as he has completed his dreadful purpose, Mrs Judy enters, witnesses the brutal havoc, and exit screaming; she soon returns, however, armed with a bludgeon, and applies it to her husband's head, which to the wood returns a wooden sound.' P. at length exasperated seizes another bludgeon, soon vanquishes his already. weakened foe, and lays her prostrate at his feet; then seizing the murdered infant and the window into the street. The dead bodies having expiring mother, he flings them both out of the been found, police-officers enter the dwelling P., who flies for his life, mounts his steed; and the author neglecting, like other great poeta, the contining unities of time and place, conveya his hero into Spain, where, however, he is arrested by an officer of the terrible Inquisition. enduring the most cruel tortures with incredite fortitude, P., by means of a golden key, opens his story is satirical, allegorical, and poetical. The bero prison-door, and escapes. The conclusion of the is first overtaken by Weariness and Laziness in the shape of a black dog, which he fights and conquers; him; but P. sees through the thin pretence,' and Disease, in the disguise of a physician, next arrest dismisses the doctor with a few derogatory kicks Death at length visits the fugitive; but P. lays about his skeleton carcass so lustily, and mak PUNCH, the chief character in a popular comic the bones of his antagonist rattle so mus.cally with exhibition performed by means of Puppets (q. v.). a bastinado, that Death his death's blow the Various accounts are given of the origin of the received. Last of all comes the Devil; first und name. The exhibition is of Italian origin, and the the appearance of a lovely female, but afterwardia Italian name is Pulcinella, or Policinella. Accord in his own natural shape, to drag the offender tạ ing to one story, a peasant, a well-known character, the infernal regions, to expiate his dreadful crimes in the market-place of Naples, got the name Even this attempt fails, and P. is left trime Pulcinella from dealing in fowls (pulcinelli), and phant over Doctors, Death, and the Devil. after his death was personated in the puppet-shows curtain falls amid the shouts of the conqueror, w of the San-Carhao theatre. Another account makes on his victorious staff, lifts on high his vanquished the word a corruption of Puccio d'Amello, the foe PUN is the name given to a play upon words. The wit lies in the equivocal sense of some parti. cular expression, by means of which an incongruous, and therefore ludicrous idea is unexpectedly Shot into the sentence. One or two examples will make the matter clearer than any definition. Two persons looking at a bergar-boy with an extraordinary big head-What a tower!' cried the first, Say, rather,' replied the second, what a fort o' lice (fortalice).-A noted punster was once asked, with reference to Mr Carlyle's writings, if he did not like to expatiate in such a field. No,' was the felicitous rejoinder; I can't get over the style (stile).-A Massachusetts lady complaining to a friend that her husband (whose business had taken him to the far West) constantly sent her letters filled with expressions of endearment, but no money, was told, by way of comfort, that he was giving her a proof of his unremitting affection! After PUNCH. to bear the box of puppets, blow the trumpet, and sometimes keep up the dialogue with the hero of the piece. The movements of the puppets are managed simply by putting the hands under the dress, making the second finger and thumb serve for the arms, while the forefinger works the head. PUNCH, a beverage introduced into England from India, and so called from being usually made of five (Hindu, pantsh) ingredients-arrack, tea, Bugar, water, and lemon-juice. As now prepared, panch may be described as a drink, the basis of which is alcohol, of one or more kinds, diluted with water, flavoured with lemon or lime-juice and spices, and sweetened with sugar; sometimes other ingredients are added according to taste, especially wine, ale, and tea. The mixture is usually compounded in a large china bowl made for the purpose, and is served out in glasses by means of a ladle. It is the mandril is then withdrawn, and the tool goes to much more rarely seen now than formerly, which be ground and finished. It will be obvious that, by is not to be regretted, for a more unwholesome skill, punches may be made which will make holes intoxicating beverage could hardly be com- of almost any shape. The enormous development pounded. The ordinary mixed punch consists of the of our iron manufactures has necessitated the use of following ingredients: the juice of three lemons machine-tools in the place of those made for the squeezed out into a large jug, and one lemon cut into hand, and none of the very ingenious inventions for ices, with the rind on for flavour, twelve ounces of this purpose have played a much more important leaf sugar, and two quarts of boiling water; after part than the punching-machines, for without them bing infused half an hour, and strained off, the liquid the labour of drilling holes in iron plates for is poured into the punch-bowl, and half a pint of rum such objects as steam-boilers, iron ships, bridges, d of brandy are added. A favourite mode of and other great works, would have been so great inking this composition at present is as a liqueur as to have effectually prevented them from being PUNCTUATION—PUNJAB. undertaken. The punching-machine invented by Messrs Roberts and Nasmyth, with recent modifications and improvements, is in very general use in all our great engineering works; its essential parts are the punch, lever, and the spring. The punch is simply a piece of tough, hard steel of a cylindrical form, and of the size of the intended holes; it fits into a socket, which is suspended over a fixed iron plate or bench, which has a hole exactly under the punch, and exactly fitting it. In the socket which holds the punch is a coiled iron spring, which holds up the punch, and allows it to descend when the power is applied, and returns it when the pressure is relieved. The lever, when in action, presses on the top of the punch, and the plate of metal which is to be perforated being placed on the iron bench, receives the pressure of the punch with sufficient force to press out a disc of metal exactly the diameter of the punch, which falls through the hole in the iron bench. The lever is moved by a cam on a powerful wheel, which presses upon it until it can pass; then the lever being relieved, the punch is drawn up by the spring in its socket, ready to receive the action of the cam when the revolution of the wheel again brings it to bear on the lever. The punch itself is always solid, differing entirely in this respect from the hand-tools. This useful machine will perforate thick plates of iron, such as are used for shipbuilding, almost as quickly as a workman with an ordinary hand-punch could perforate thin plates of tin; the holes made are quite true, and are ready to receive the rivets. the compulsory payment of money, and failing which, with the deprivation of property and liberty. As the legal consequence of crimes, punishment con sists chiefly of the infliction of pain on the body, and this ranges from capital punishment or death, down to imprisonment for a term of years, and, in some cases, whipping is added; and in military and naval offences, flogging. Capital punishment is inflicted only in case of treason and murder (but there are other instances under naval or army discipline), and in the form of Hanging (q. v.). In crimes of less degree, imprisonment, or Penal Servi tude (q. v.) for a term of years, is the punishmen.. As a general rule, the judge has a discretion to fix the punishment within two defined limits. In the great mass of the smallest crimes, which are cognis able by justices of the peace, and are frequently termed offences punishable summarily, the usual punishment is a fine or penalty, i. e., a sum of money is ordered to be paid by the offender, and if he do not pay it, his goods are sold to make up the sum; failing which, he is committed to the house of correction for a short period of 3, 6, or 12 months; but, in some of the cases, imprisonment and hard labour are imposed in lieu of a fine. The crown can put an end to a sentence of punishment by a free pardon, or may commute a sentence of death to imprisonment for life. PUNISHMENT, FUTURE. See HELL in the British service, include death, by shooting, if PUNISHMENTS, MILITARY AND NAVAL. These, PUNCTUATION, the division of a writing into for a disgraceful offence; for serious crimes, logging, for an offence against discipline-or by hanging, if sentences, and the subdivision of these into parts not exceeding 50 lashes, inflicted with the cat-o'by means of certain marks called points, a great nine-tails on the bare back (see FLOGGING); for help to the clear exhibition of the meaning and to minor offences, degradation of rank, imprisonthe pleasant reading of what is written. The ment, extra drill, stoppage of grog, loss of good. ancients were not acquainted with the use of points, conduct pay, stoppage of leave, &c. Death, degraor used them very little, and only for oratorical dation, and loss of leave are the only punishments purposes. Punctuation, according to the grammar of those named above which can be inflicted on and sense, is said to have been an invention of the an officer. An officer can only be punished by Alexandrian grammarian, Aristophanes; but was so sentence of a court-martial; he may be cashiered, much neglected and forgotten, that Charlemagne dismissed the service, deprived of his regiment or found it necessary to ask Warnefried and Alcuin to ship; or, in the navy, reduced in rank by being restore it. It consisted at first of a point called the placed at the bottom of the list of officers of lis stigma, and sometimes a line, variously formed and grade-In certain of the German armies, punishintroduced. The system of punctuation now in usement is inflicted on the men in the form of strokes was introduced by the Venetian printer, Manutius, in the latter part of the 15th c.; the example was soon and generally followed, and little change has since been found requisite. PUNDLER, the name which in Scotland used to be given to a person employed on an estate as hedger, ditcher, forester, and general guardian, in absence of the proprietor. The office of a pundler was probably analogous to that of poynder. In a few cases, the term pundler is still employed. PUNIC WARS, the name commonly given to the three great wars waged for supremacy between Rome and Carthage. The Latin word punicus, or ponicus, was the name given by the Romans to the Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phoenician descent. For an outline of the struggle between the two rival powers, see CARTHAGE, KOME, HAMILCAR, HANNIBAL, and the SCIPIOS-The Romans, who believed, not without reason, that the Carthaginians never sincerely meant to keep any treaty of peace, employed the phrase punien judes, Punic faith, to denote a false and faithless spirit. PUNICA. See POMEGRANATE PUNISHMENT, in this country, usually means the deprivation of property or liberty, or the infliction of pain on the body of one who commits a armenal offence. It is not applicable, generally, to civil actions, though these are also followed with with a cane or with the flat of a sabre. PUNJAB (the Pentapotamia of the Greeks, derives its name from two Persian words, signifying five rivers') is an extensive territory in the northwest of Hindustan, watered by the Indus, and its five great affluents-the Jhelum, Chenab, Rava, Beas, and Sutlej, and forms a British possess a since February 1819. It is bounded on the W. by the Suliman Mountains, on the N. by Cashmere, and on the E and S. E. by the Sutlej, which, in its lower course, is called the Ghara. In shape, the territory of the P. resembles an isosceles trian, e the apex of which is at the junction of the In las and the Punjnud, in lat. about 29° N.; and the base, about 450 miles in length, runs along the Himalayas. The sides are about 600 miles in length. According to the latest returns published in the last statistical tables of the Colonial and other P. » as ons of the United Kingdom (1862), the area of t P. is 100,406 square miles; and the pop. 14,794,611 The physical character of the northern contrasts strikingly with that of the southern districts la the north, the whole surface is traversed by spirg from the Himalayas, which enclose deep valleys In the south, the surface is unbroken by any m portant eminence, with the exception of the S Range, about 2000 feet high, between the Indus and the Jhelum. The country, divided into five doab |