SHIITES SHIP-BUILDING. The sea-coast, in the neighbourhood, is interesting from the rocks and caves. The life-boat is a South S. invention. South S. sends one member to parliament. Pop. of borough (1861), 35,239. their own. SHI'ITES (sectaries,' from the Arab. Shiah, Shiat, a party, a faction), the name given to a Mohammedan sect by the Sunnites' (q. v.), or orthodox Moslems. The S. call themselves followers of Ali,' and have special observances, ceremonies and rites, as well as particular dogmas of The principal difference between the two consists in the belief of the S. that the Imamat, or supreme rule, both spiritual and secular, over all Mohammedans, was originally vested in Ali Ibn Abi Taleb, and has been inherited by his descend. ants, to whom it legitimately now belongs. The Persians are S.; the Turks, on the other hand, are Sunnites; and this division between the two nations dates chiefly from the califate of Mothi Lilla, the Abasside, in 363 H., when political dissensions, which ended in the destruction of Bagdad and the loss of the califate of the Moslems, assumed the character of a religious war. The S. themselves never assume that (derogatory) name, but call themselves Al-Adeliat, Sect of the Just Ones.' They are subdivided again into five sects, to one of which, that of Haidar, the Persians belong: the present dynasty of Persia deriving its descent from Haidar, a descendant of Ali. Ali himself is, by some of them, endowed with more than human attributes.-The S. believe in metempsychosis and the descent of God upon His creatures, inasmuch as He, omnipresent, sometimes appears in some individual person, such as their Imams. Their five subdivisions they liken unto five trees, with seventy branches; for their minor divisions of opinions, on matters of comparatively unimportant points of dogma, are endless. Yet, in this they all agree, that they consider the califs Abu Bekr, Omar, and Othman, who are regarded with the highest reverence by the orthodox Sunnites, as unrighteous pretenders, and usurpers of the sovereign power, which properly ought to have gone to Ali direct from the Prophet. For the same reason, they abominate the memory of the Ommayad califs, who executed Husain, a son of Ali, and they still mourn his death at its anniversary. They likewise reject the Abasside califs, notwithstanding their descent from Mohammed, because they did not belong to Ali's line. SHIKARPUR, the most important trading-town, and probably the most populous town, in Sinde, stands about 20 miles west of the Indus, half way between Multan and Kûrrachi. The district in which it stands is so low and level, that, by means of canals, which are supplied from the Indus, it is flooded every season. Its climate, notwithstanding, is said to be not unhealthy. The inundated quarters are extremely fertile and produce great crops Groves, orchards, and fruit-gardens surround the town; sugar-cane is largely grown. S. is situated on one of the great routes by the Bolan Pass from Sinde to Afghanistan, and the transit-trade to that country and to Khorassan is important. The bankers and financiers of S. are known and trusted from Astrakhan to Calcutta. S. is the chief town of the state of the same name, which has an area of 13.679 sq. m., and 693,259 inhabitants. Pop. of the town estimated at 30,000, 20,000 of whom are Hindus, and the rest Mohammedans. SHILKA. See AMOOR. SHILLING, the name of a money in use throughout many European states, partly as a coin, and partly as a money of account. In all probability, the name, as well as the thing itself, is derived from the Roman solidus, which, with other remains. of Roman institutions, was adopted by the Franks SHIN, LOCH, in the south of Sutherlandshire. ■ 18 miles long, and about one mile broad. The Shim Water, a famous trout-stream, carries the waters of the loch into Oikell Water. Loch S. aboun is a common trout and salmon. SHINGLES, flat pieces of wood used in roofing like slates or tiles. Such roofs are much used in newly-settled countries where timber is plent fal The wood is chosen from among the kinds wh hà split readily and straightly, and is usually a mar kind of fir. It is cut into blocks, the longitud: ial faces of which are of the size intended for the shingles, which are then regularly split off in the k nesses of about a quarter of an inch. SHIP (Ger. Schiff = skiff; from the root sup- or skaph-, to scoop, dig; Gr. skaphe, a trough, a boat. is a term applied with great vagueness to all lar vessels; while under shipping would be inca let Among seamen, the expression is said to be limited vessels of all sizes, excepting boats without dis to vessels carrying three masts, with a roval-mast navigation, in which the largest vessels have se surmounting each; but the development of steamtimes only a schooner rig, must have gone far towards obliterating this distinction. SHIP-BUILDING. See NAVIGATION; NAVIIN ANCIENT AND MODERN; and NAVY, BRITISH. Fr crossing a river or lake on a floating log, or on two or more logs fastened together raft-wise the not steps towards ship-building were probably Categ (V.), and Coracles (q. v.). The earliest Ervit an drawings shew boats constructed of sawn panka and having sails as well as numerous are as can be learned from ancient sculptures, the isation appear to have been open, at least in the galleys of the Mediterranean at the dawn of st middle portion; to have been but with k ribs, and planking, and to have been streng ened cross-wise by the numerous benches which the rowers sat. to be generally of small draught, for they wore Ships continuesi, however, beached every winter; and Caesar ment, or as a noteworthy circumstance, that some of the ships with which he invaded Britain could or approach the shore to such a point that the Romans built their vessels of pine, cedar, an 1 in disembarking were breast-high in the water. light woods; but their ships of war were of oak at the bows, clamped strongly with iron or trasa, for use as rams-a custom now curiously revived after 2000 years of disuse. According to Camar, tas Veneti first built entirely of oak. The p oxidation of iron bolts and fastenings led to ter supersession by copper and brass about the time ď Nero. Before this time, the planks bad how calked with flax, and the seams had been There is evidence to shew that in Trajan SHIP-BUILDING. sheathing of lead fastened on with copper nails had been used as a protection for the timbers from the devastating insects of the Mediterranean. With the decline of Roman greatness came a new era for ship-building. The hardy Norsemen had chopping seas and Atlantic swells to fight with; their ships differed much from the stately galleys and quinqueremes of the empire. Far smaller, they were built more stoutly, with bluff bows, and a lug-sail which could be braced well up to the wind. The Norse ships must have been of considerable power, for there is good evidence that they had visited the coasts of the New World at an early period. We have, however, very little knowledge of the construction of these vessels, except that they had high prows and sterns to resist the waves, and that they were calculated for sailing in opposition to the galleys, which were for rowing. The introduction of galleys by Alfred, pulled by 40 and 60 oars, and twice as long, deep, nimble, and steady as the Danish ships, kept the latter in check; but it also checked the development of ocean-navigation, for the galleys were only fit for shore-service. The ships gradually increased in size. Hardicanute had a galley pulled by 80 oars; and contemporaneously, the Venetians are said to have built ships of 1200 to 2000 tons. William invaded England in miserably small sailing vessels; but large-indeed very large -vessels appear to have existed in the time of Richard I. John systematised ship-building by establishing a royal dockyard at Portsmouth. Large ships constructed for sailing only seem to have come into general use, together with the mariner's compass, in the beginning of the 14th century. One hundred and fifty years later, the addition of the bowsprit added much to the sailing-powers of vessels. Naval architecture on a theoretic basis is of recent date, for, as in all cases, practical efforts, more or less in the dark, have preceded by many ages the theorems of the man of science; nor is it at present by any means an exact science. Results continually occur which take by surprise the best masters; and great as have been the strides both in theory and practice, many of the most successful ships have been but happy experiments. The laws flotation and resistance are, of course, the foundation of the science, and for these we must refer to the articles on HYDROSTATICS and HYDRODYNAMICS; but very trifling changes in the shape of the body immersed, the position of its centre of gravity, &c., produce apparently disproportionate results on the sailing-powers of a ship. In regard to speed, the resistance is, theoretically, as the square of the velocity; but, practically, it increases in a greater ratio, since the water piles in a wave before the bows, and leaves a temporary hollow before it closes in at the stern. To avoid this wave at the bow, and give good steerage-power to the rudder, finelypointed extremities are desirable; but if these points be too fine, they will cease to be self-sus taining in the water, and will detract from the general buoyancy of the ship, while they will tend to raise the centre of gravity above the metacentre. Apart from these considerations, the finer the build, the less are the stowage-power and steadiness. It will thus be seen how many points a naval architect has to take into account in designing the lines of a ship. It would be beyond the scope of an elementary article like the present to give the complicated rules by which the areas of sections, solid contents, and centres of gravity of ships are calculated; but it is necessary to say that they have to be computed with the utmost nicety. Theory has as yet failed to point out clearly what should be the proportions between the length, breadth, and depth of a ship; but the following principles may be stated as the results of experience: In Ellis's Collection of Letters there is one, dated 1419, from John Alcêtre to King Henry V., concerning a ship building at Bayonne for that monarch. This letter is curious, as shewing how many of the present terms then existed, and also that the Kynges schyppes' were of considerable dimen- An increase of length gives an increase of displacesions (e. g., the stemme is in hithe 96 fete; and ment of water, and therefore of carrying-power; if the post 48 fete; and the kele ys yn leynthe 112 this be not desired, it allows of tiner lines forward fete.) Before this period, ships had been built and aft, and consequently greater speed. It also strong enough to encounter ice in the whale increases the resistance to lee-way. The greater fishery. From this period the history of ship- friction of the water on the longer sides does not building is resolved into the history of indi- appear to be material. Against the increase is to vidual parts, for the main principles of wooden be set a diminished power of turning, tacking, and ships were already established. In Henry VII.'s wearing. It also involves a more careful balancing reign, the cumbrous fourth mast began to be dis- of weights in the fore and after portions of the ship, pensed with; in that of his successors, shifting top-for the momentum of a small weight may become masts came into fashion, the lofty stems and sterns (which must have precluded sailing on a wind) fell gradually into disuse. Port-holes were invented at least as early as 1500. In 1567, there were cutterrigged vessels in the British seas. In the century ensuing, naval architecture was much improved by Mr Phineas Pett, his son Peter, and by Sir Anthony Deane; but the best naval architects were not in England. Within the present century, the introduction of steam has led to the building of ships with finer lines, both for bow and stern. About 1836, iron was introduced as a material for shipbuilding, and is now employed almost equally with wood. Adverting now to the actual art and practice of ship-building, the subject is divisible into two distinct portions-the theoretical, known as Naval Architecture; and the practical, called Ship-building. The naval architect designs the form of a ship with reference to the objects intended in her construction, to the speed required, powers of stowage, &c.; while the ship-builder works from his drawings, and gives practical effect to the theoretical design. large in a long vessel, from being such weight multiplied into the square of its distance from the ship's centre of gravity. The increase of breadth gives greater stability to the ship, and, by allowing of more sail, indirectly greater speed; but directly, it increases the resistance to the water. Of course, greater breadth enables greater bulk to be carried. Depth is a question dependent on the seas to be navigated, the object for which the ship is intended, and many other reasons. It is to be borne always in mind that the consumption of stores on a long voyage will change the draught of a ship considerably. Practice has proved unequivocally that ships sail better for drawing more water aft than forward. Passing now to the actual designing of vessels: the architect works on paper only; he has there fore to shew on a flat surface, for the builder's guidance, the exact position, curvature, and relief of every line and point in his proposed structure. He accordingly draws three plans, on each of which every point of the ship is traceable: the sheer-plan, shewing all lines of length and height; 徵 through the keel. The half-breadth plan represents one half of the ship's upper deck, as regards the black outer line; the horizontal, vertical, and cross sections of the sheer-plan appearing again under different conditions. The vertical longitudinal sections become straight lines parallel to the keel; the horizontal sections appear as curves taken at different heights on the vessel's sides. The body-plan is the ship looked at end-on; the outer line being her cross section at the line of greatest breadth, and the horizontal and vertical sectional lines appearing at right angles to each other. The lines on the left side correspond to the cross sections of the after-body (that is, the portion of the ship nearer the stern than the line of greatest width), and shew the curvature of the ship's sides Fig. 3.-Great EasternBody Plan. are to be actually built, the scale employed would be very large; and instead of three or four sectional lines in each direction, a great number would be inserted for the guidance of the builder. Wah these three plans in hand, the workman has the exact position of every point in the ship's exterse coating exactly defined. Even the unpr. fessional observer need not strain his imagination greaty te clothe these flat plans with their dimensi as of length, breadth, and depth, and to conjure up before his eyes the precise form of the goodly ship represented. Before leaving these plans, it is right to state Fig. 4. Clipper-Lord of the Isles towards the stern; while in a similar manner those on the right side shew the curvature up to the bow. Of course, in working-drawings from which ships Fig. 5.-Yacht-America. that the Great Eastern is somewhat peculiar în ber lines; few body-plans are so flat in the bottom; and on the other hand, she is unusually convex at the bow. In proof of this, fore-bodies of two celebrated vessels, and the half-breadth of their bows, are shewn in figs. 4, 5. With the completion of the construction drawings the work of the naval architect censes, exorgs as regards any necessary subsequent supervis SHIP-BUILDING. It is then to be decided of what material the ship shall be constructed. Of the many woods employed-oak, teak, and fir, are those most commonly used; or iron may be resorted to; or, again, the ship may be of wood and iron combined. The building of a wooden and of an iron ship are quite distinct operations, the requisite strength being obtained in a different manner in each case. It is necessary, therefore, to consider separately the principles of wooden ship-building and iron shipbuilding; and as the most time-honoured, and as yet the most general process, we will first deal with the art of the shipwright who forms the vessel of timber. Wooden Ship-building.-The first process is to develop, or lay off,' on the mould-loft floor, certain full-size working sections of the required ship. These are taken from the construction drawings, and are built up of planks. The combinations of these pieces of plank shew the shape in which the several timbers will have to be cut, to impart the necessary curvature and strength. On The next step in actual construction is to prepare the slipway, by raising a number of strong blocks of timber a short distance apart, on which the keel shall rest, and which shall sustain the entire ship when built. These blocks are composed of several pieces, and it is of the utmost importance that their upper surfaces be in an exact line. That line is made at an inclination of ths of an inch to a foot; and the keel of the ship, and the ship itself, have consequently that slope to the horizon while building. This inclination is for the facility it affords in launching the completed vessel. the blocks is laid the keel, which may be called the back bone, and is certainly by far the most important timber in the ship. From it start the ribs, the stem, and the sternpost; so that any serious accident happening to the keel, involves the breaking up of the whole structure. It is therefore made of great strength, being, in a first-rate, no less than 20 inches square. The material is usually elm, on account of its toughness, its non-liability to split, and the fact that immersion in sea-water preserves it. The pieces of which it is composed are united by the strongest kind of scarph joint (see CARPENTRY). a 3 of the Keel. b To afford a firm footing for the planking of the ship, a rabbet, or angular groove, is cut in the side of the keel, as in fig. 6. Here the side a represents the rabbet, as usually cut in the merchant service; b, as made in the royal navy. The advantage of the latter Fig. 6.-Rabbets system is, that thicker planking can be worked in, affording better lateral support to the keel, and that there is less disruptive leverage when the ship takes the ground. The false keel is placed below the true keel, after all the bolting through the latter has been accomplished. It consists of elm, 4 to 6 inches thick; and is but lightly secured, in order that if the ship runs ashore, the false keel may readily come off, and let the vessel go free. It is so put on that its joints come midway between the scarphs of the keel. To fix it, it is necessary to knock away, one by one, the blocks on which the keel rests, which is done at the time the weight of the ship is transferred from the blocks to the cradle resting on the bilge-ways. See LAUNCH. What the keel is to the bottom, the stem and sternpost are to the bow and stern of the ship, forming the keys from which the ends of the planking (technically called the 'butts') and all longitudinal supports start. Each is, of necessity, of great strength, and rises from the respective extremities of the keel. The stem is fastened to the keel by scarphs, called the boxing, and within it is the apron, and perhaps a false-post also, to impart additional strength, as shewn in fig. 7. The stern-post has to bear the rudder, and is usually made, when possible, of one piece of timber; it is united to the keel by a mortise and tenon joint. In large vessels, an inner post is sometimes worked on to the sternpost for extra security. In screwsteamers, there is a second Fig. 7.-Stem. sternpost, forming the for- a, stem; b, keel; c, boxing; ward support for the screw. The extreme outlines of א d, apron; e, stantion. the ship being now established, the builder proceeds with the timbers to form the bottom and sides, which together constitute the frame, corresponding to the ribs in an animal. The ribs form the sides of the ship, and are placed at from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 9 inches from centre to centre. Above the water-line, the spaces between them are filled in solid with timbers of equal thickness. For this purpose, in the midship-body the keel is crossed at right angles, or nearly so, by certain timbers which form the floor. One mode of arrang. ing the component pieces is shewn in fig. 8. The B Fig. 8.-The Floor. A, B, Middle Line of Keel. keel is let about three-fourths of an inch into a groove running along the bottom of the floor, while above the floor, the keelson is a massive timber, paralel to the keel. The keel and keelson are bolted firmly together by long copper bolts, which pass through the timbers of the floor, and completely fix the latter. Beyond the floor-pieces, and forming the curvature of the sides, are the fatte cks. The heels of these timbers rest on the butts of the floor-timbers. There may be a greater or less number of futtocks, according to the size of the ship. On the heads of the uppermost futtocks, rest the heels of the top-timbers, which, with any lengthening pieces which may be necessary to give height, form the complete ribs. The floor, futtocks, top-timbers, and lengthening timbers are united to each other by dowels and bolts. As an additional strengthening to the frame in large vessels, side or sister keelsons are bolted on to the floor or futtocks, a short distance on each side of the principal keelson. Fig. 9 shews a section of a complete rib, with the several parts. Having now formed the ribs for the midship-body, in which they are placed at right angles to the keel, it is necessary to consider their form in the fore and after cant-bodies. Here the right angle can be no longer maintained between the timbers and the keel, since they have to be SHIP-BUILDING. called deadwood, shewn in fig. 12. The deadwood consists of timbers worked above the keel, and of the same width with it, and is practically a heightening of the keel. The dead wood imparts a wedge like shape to the vessel. In screw-steamers, the after-deadwood is almost wholly cut away to form the aperture for the screw. Having built the main skeleton, as it were, of our ship, the skin is the only thing remaining to com plete its exterior. This is represented by truck wooden planking, fastened on to the ribs, the lowest layer pressing into the rabbet of the kel and the highest reaching to the uppermost balwark. The thickest planking is at the bends or wales, marked H in fig. 9, where it varies from 4 inch in small vessels to 10 inch in ships of the first class. Very thick plank is technically termed thickstuff. Below the wales, the planks are reduced gradually in thickness: those first occurring are called the diminishing plank,' still of oak under this, on the rounding, fir is used under the name of 'bottom plank,' except the last five or BLE planks from the keel, which are of elm, and are called garboard strakes.' Every complete line of planking from stem to stern is styled a strake. the trees from which thick planks are cut are parta of cones-i. e., with the plank much wider at base than at top-the planks are worked alternately as a fig. 13, which is called 'top-and-butt.' Other forma As Fig. 9.-Rib and Decks in section. A, keel; B, kelson; C, false keel; D, floor; EE, futtocks; F. t p-timber; G, lengthening piece; HH, wales; I, dimin ishing planks; K, bottom planks: L, garboard strakes: M, beam; N, deck; 0, shelf: P, waterway; Q, spirketting; R. clamps; S, knees; T, side-keelsons; V, limber strakes; W, rough-tree rail; X, mast. the ribs being set at a diminishing angle to the keel, as seen in fig. 10. The foremost cant-timbers are the knightheads, forming, with the stem, a bed for the bowsprit; next to these are the hawsetimbers, through which the hawse-holes are pierced. In order that the cant-timbers may sit firmly on the keel, they are made narrower at the bottom than at the top. But the canting forward Fig. 10.-Cant-body, seen or aft is not the only peculiarity of the cantbodies; for at its extremities the ship becomes sharp downwards as well as endways. It consequently ceases to be practicable to have floors of any flatness across the keel. The half-floors and from above. a, keel. Fig. 13.-Planking; top-and-butt. of working are 'fair-edge' and anchor-stack which do not call for particular description, but are less economical than top-and-butt. The planks are fastened to the ribs by bolts; one through each b constituting 'single fastening; two, double fastening;' and one and two alternately, single and doute fastening.' 'Dump fastening' consists in using alternately one bolt and one dump or bolt mal which is hammered to a head without and within Wooden treenails are, however, frequently emp' y-d as less in weight than copper, and less liable to spit the wood. The comparative utility of wood and copper fastenings for the strakes, is still a dispated point. In a well-constructed ship, the filling in of the timbers to a level above the water-line should be so accurately formed that she would float with at ber planking; but when the latter has been well cauiked it is certain that it adds greatly to the dryness of the ship, while it aids materially in binding her several parts together. The At frequent intervals across the ship, and at the heights of the several decks, are inserted the beams which are solid masses of timber, either in one pe or scarphed. These prevent the ship from collageng and at the same time support the decks beams and decks are shewn at M and N respectivey in fig. 9. To support the beams on each level strong timber or shelf is worked round the inter of the ribs. Above the ends of the beams, sinar timbers or waterways, though somewhat sma..ct, are worked round the inner frame. The ins. lea planked above the water-line similarly to the outside. The planks above the waterways as het as the ports or windows are spirketting (thome below the shelf and above the ports are the dampa (R). The decks and beams curve upwards at the middle, forming a very depressed arch, party je drainage, and, in men-of-war, partly to counterac the recoil of the guns. When weight is pued on |