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the hands-accommodations which contrast favour ably with what were furnished to travellers in the old coaching establishments. The waitingrooms are open all day to the public, and there is seldom any restriction as to going on the plat forms. Tickets are sold at a wicket not earlier than a quarter of an hour before the starting of the train. At the larger termini, there is a wicket for the first, and a wicket for the second and third, class. The tickets, marked in consecutive numbers, are stamped with the date on delivery, and excepting return tickets,' will not answer for any other day. Return tickets at a fare and a half are issued on most lines for the date of issue, or from Friday till Monday. On most lines, monthly, three-monthly, and season tickets are issued for first-class, not transferable, at a considerable reduction on ordinary fares To encourage the building of villas at a distance of ten to twenty miles from termini, by which means a traffic may be developed, some com panies give a personal ticket free for a number of years corresponding to the valued rental of the villa. For example, the builder or first occupant of a villa valued at £45 per annum, will receive a ticket for three years (taking him, if he pleases daily, by all the trains during that period); if valued at £60, a ticket for five years. Much permanent traffic has in this manner been created in the neighbourhood of London.

The number of trains run daily depends on the pleasure of the directors. There are ordinary, mail, and express, trains; of this last kind, two usually go each way daily, the fares on which are hi her than by the others. Ordinary fares are about 2,4 per mile first class, 1d. second class, and 1d. to lid. third class; but on some lines the fares are con

usually shallow in the ledges, and furnished with swivel bars, on which the timber rests. TRAFFIC.-The traffic on railways is of two dis-siderably lower. According to one of the provisions tinct kinds-passengers and goods; with the goods we include minerals, also timber and other bulky articles. The passenger and goods traffic are placed under separate managements. Usually, there are passenger-trains and goods-trains. As minerals are carried on trucks without spring-buffers, it is inconvenient and damaging to unite them to passengercarriages.

In every part of the United Kingdom, railway passengers are of three classes-first, second, and third. For the first and second, there are distinct carriages or compartments of carriages; for the third, the carriages are always distinct. The first-class compartments are handsomely titted up with stuffed cloth seats and backs, are provided with straps for sustaining hats, a netting for umbrellas and small packages, and in winter they are furnished with lon-shaped tin vessels of hot water for the feet, which vessels are renewed at certain points in the journey. Though from the fares charged, first-class carriages possess an air of exclusiveness, no more objection is popularly taken to them than to the use of boxes in theatres; and, indeed, they are universally recognised as an advantage, for the reason that by the comparatively high fares exacted for them, the companies are enabled to lower the charges for second and third-class passengers. On som lines, first-class compartments are set aside for ladies, if they please to use them. In none of the ordinary carriages is smoking allowed; but on a few lines, as in Germany, there are compartments for smokers. The first-class passengers have distinct waiting-rooms at the termini and stations, with generally a waiting room in addition for ladies; for the second and third class, there is a waitingroom in common. The several waiting-rooms are neatly fitted up. and provided with suitable conveniences, including basins and water for washing

of a general act, all companies must run one train daily each way, stopping at all stations, and at a rate of speed not less than 12 miles per hour, at a fare of a penny a mile. Children under three years of age going with passengers are free, and those from 3 to 12 years pay only half-fare. With few exceptions, the companies run two passenger-trains each way on Sundays, as far as possible avoiding the hours of divine service. By an act, 5 and 6 Vict. cap. 79, there is payable to government a duty at and after the rate of £5 per £100 upon all sums received or charged for the Hire, Fare, or Convey ance of all Passengers.' By 7 and 8 Vict. cap. 85, it is enacted that no tax shall be levied on the receipts for passengers conveyed at fares not exceeding one penny per mile; but by the 26 and 27 Vict. cap. 33, it is enacted that this exemption shall only extend to trains running six days in the week, or on market-days for the convevance of passengers at one penny per mile. From this passenger-tax, Ireland is exempted.

All passenger trains are accompanied by a 'guard' or conductor-the official who is charged with the responsible duty of conducting the train according to certain printed regulations, of which he possesses a copy. For the most part guards are intelligent and obliging persons, who do all in their power to render service to the passengers, within the pre scribed rules. Nor must it be omitted, that although fees to any of the railway servants are strictly forbid len, the porters on duty are remarkable for the trouble they take to carry luggage, find cats at the termini, and to answer civilly such inquiries as may be put to them by strangers. It may be said with perfect justice, that in no department of affairs in Great Britain is there seen suh readiness to oblige as in that connected with rail ways. Considering, also, the vast number of

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servants on some lines-the number on one line and its affiliated branches being 20,000-the general good conduct that is shewn, and the few accidents that occur, constitute a gratifying social phenomenon. The guard, porters, and some other officials wear a neat and distinctive uniform.

According to English routine, passengers are allowed to find their way promiscuously to the proper carriages, the only check being a call by the guard to shew tickets' previous to starting. At the termini, on closing the journey, tickets are collected by the guard; at the intermediate stations, tickets are given up to a porter at the exit wicket. All passengers are expected to see their luggage labelled for the place of destination, and to point out what belongs to them on arrival. This is a loose practice, often remonstrated against, but it suits the temperament and self-relying habits of the people. Amidst the crush of traffic and with little time to spare, the formalities of the continental system would be unendurable. Should labelled packages, resigned to the porters and guard, be lost, recourse lies against the company. Passengers may place small portions of luggage below their seats, but for these the company is not accountable. At the termini of the principal lines, and at important stations, there are refreshment rooms or stalls, for the most part well provided with materials for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. On the London and North-western line, and perhaps on others, there is a practice convenient to travellers. The guard asks who intends to dine at a particular place, and telegraphs the fact to the keeper of the dining-room, who has everything ready accordingly at the proper moment. At all the chief stations there are stalls for the sale of time-tables, newspapers, and small books of an amusing kind. See BOOK-TRADE The sale of morning newspapers is so very considerable, that some of the first-class carriages assume for a time the appearance of a reading-room.

passengers, goods, use of carriages, &c., an institution called the Clearing House has been established in London, to which tickets are transmitted for cross-reckoning and settlement. There is a similar establishment in Dublin. See CLEARING HOUSE.

Cost of Working.-The cost of working railways, including general expenditure, in Great Britain amounts to from 48 to 50 per cent. of the returns from traffic. The remainder forms the divisible profit to pay-1st, the interest on debentures; and 2d, the dividend to shareholders. Of these shareholders, some, as defined by statute, have a preference claim of 5 per cent. per annum, what is left over being divisible among the ordinary or original shareholders. In the general expenditure of railway companies is included the outlay for passenger-tax, also police, poor, and parish-rates. Considering that railways promote the prosperity of every district which they traverse, it certainly seems a kind of hardship that they should be rated for local purposes like any ordinary property in a parish. Besides supporting the poor, the railways in Scotland are rated like Heritors (q. y.) for building new parish-churches.

According to a return made by railway companies to the Board of Trade in 1862, the cost of running trains was on an average 28. 74d. per mile, or about £13 for 100 miles. At this rate, 1000 passengers of mixed classes can be conveyed 100 miles in 25 carriages, as follows: Every first-class passenger for the 100 miles, 6d., second class 4d., and third-class 24d. From this it appears that lowness of fares can be secured only by a large and well-sustained traffic; and that the main reason why fares are much higher than they seemingly might be, is the frequent insufficiency of the number of passengers compared with the accommodation provided for them. A striking exemplification of the possibility of conveying large numbers at very low fares is afforded in the case of 'excur sion trains,' in which sometimes 1000 individuals are taken 50 or more miles, and brought back the same day for one or two shillings each.

One of the good features of British railway transit is accuracy in starting and arriving at the prescribed time, a circumstance proximately owing to the vigilance of the guard and his strict attention STATISTICS.-Every year a return is rendered by to the rules of the company. Another peculiarity the Board of Trade to the House of Commons consists in the privacy secured to passengers while embracing a large variety of particulars concerning on their journey. Instead of being intruded on railways. The return dated February 8, 1864, gives as in the American, Swiss, and some other railways, the following statistics for the United Kingdom for by the constant perambulation of the guard through the year ending December 31, 1863: Number of the train, they are left unmolested to read, talk, miles open, double lines, 7270; single lines, 5052— or sleep, according as fancy may direct. This very total, 12,322. Number of passengers (exclusive of seclusion, however, is thought to be attended with holders of season and periodical tickets), first class, a disadvantage-namely, that passengers are unable 26,086,008; second class, 57,476,669; third class, to call for the assistance of the guard in cases of 121,072 398-total, 204,635,075. Number of car. threatened outrage by one of their number. Lat-riages, 71,938. Number of horses carried, 275,238; terly, there has been much newspaper discussion number of dogs, 430,644. Live stock carried-cattle, on this point, and various projects have been sug- 3,155,071; sheep, 7,761,884; pigs, 2,112,720. Minegested for summoning the guard, and, if need be, rals carried, 68,043,154 tons. General merchandise, arresting the progress of the train. To all devices 32,517,247 tons. Passenger-trains, 2,917,660; goodsof this kind there is unfortunately the grave ob- trains, 1,758,033—total trains, 4,675,693. Miles jection, that if passengers were enabled to call the travelled by passenger-trains, 61,032,143; by goodsguard at pleasure, they would frequently do so for trains, 55,560,018-total, 116,592,161. Receipts no sufficient reason, as whim or imaginary fear from passengers-first class, £3.368,676; second prompted; also, that the unexpected stoppage of class, £4,201,105; third class, £4,933,073; holders of trains would seriously derange the keeping of time, season and periodical tickets, £334,256-total from and in many lines jeopardise the safety of the whole passengers, £12,837,110. Receipts for parcels, horses, of the passengers. Seemingly, it would be difficult dogs, &c. by passenger-trains, £1,136,259; receipts to fall upon any plan free of this species of objection, for carrying mails, £548,159. Total receipts from unless recourse be had to the American construction passenger-trains, £14,521,528. Receipts for live of carriages, and the free perambulation of the stock, 4636,773; for minerals, £5,419,667; for general guard through the trains-a remedy which involves merchandise, £10,578,429-total of goods traffic, a revolution in English railway transit, as well as in £16,634,869. Total receipts from all services, English feelings and manners. £31,076,165 (in 1865, probably £36,000,000). Working expenses-maintenance of way, £2,847,287; locomotive power and stationary engines, £4,150,499;

To enable companies to reckon easily with each other as regards intercommunication of traffic in

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repairs and renewals of carriages and wagons, work of government; and we are told, on good 1,402,356; traffic charges (coaching and merchan- anthority, that the cost has been on an average spread dian), 44,196,122; rates and taxes, £631,127; govern- £18.00 per mile, but this seems to include expenses mont duty, £395,234; compensation for personal con rolling stock. From Belgium railway injury, £179,565; compensation and damage from to France, where they were laid down on a loss of goods, 468,242; legal and parliamentary plan prescribed by the government, which offered expenses, £194,782; miscellaneous expenditure, not special encouragement to capitalists. The method included in the foregoing, 4962,020. Total working adopted was to give the land and make the expenditure, £15,027,234; net balance of receipts bridges, but besides these heavy items of expen Proportion of diture, the government was in a number of instances over expenditure, £16,048,931. expenditure to receipts, 48 per cent. Vehicles of at the cost of the entire permanent way. So far all sorts employed -locomotives, 6 43; carriages for favoured, the promoters, who formed a company, passengers, 15,886; other vehicles attached to had only to find capital to work and maintain the passenger trains, 6135; wagons for live stock, line. The government, however, relinquished the minerals, and merchandise, 194,344; other vehicles property only on the footing of a lease for such a not in these classes, 5759-total of every kind, 228,767. number of years as a company was disposed to be Authorised capital, by shares, £355,700,795; by satisfied with. Tenders were ordinarily taken from Total competing bodies of promoters; in this manner the loans, £119,298,750 -total, £474,999,545. paid up on shares and debenture loans, £404,215,802. concession,' or right of tenancy, has been adjusted No summary is given of the average rate per cent. at from 50 to 99 years; at the end of the preof dividend per annum, which from the tables seems scribed periods the lines will fall into the hinds for the most part to be 44 per cent; in some of the government. Latterly, the French system instances it is as low as 1, in others it is as high as has outgrown this kind of tutelage; and there is a 6, and rarely higher. The general average is by disposition in companies to act on an independent computation 4:16 per cent.-acknowledgedly an footing; the state, however, has secured a very insuflicient return on outlay, but the inadequacy general right of property in the existing lines, of the amount is due in a great degree to the waste whether by the method of assistance originally of capital on parliamentary contests, and also on the fallen upon, or by giving large subventions of construction of lines to supersede or rival others money, on the plan of receiving a share of pronts after a certain dividend has been reached. already in operation. means of these subventions, as well as a species of guaranteed monopoly of traffic, the profits to shareholders in some French lines, reach from 10 to 12 per cent. Within 99 years from 1852, a large pro On one or other of the portion of the French railways will lapse into possession of the state. various plans of government helping companies, and preventing ruinous competition, nearly the whole railway system of continental Europe, Asia, and Africa is established; and in a large number of the foreign railway undertakings everywhere much British capital is invested. The principal continental railways, particularly in France and Belgium, are double lines, and under good management; but the rate of transit is generally slower than in England, and the formalities as to taking tickets and being allowed to enter the trains are exceedingly troublesome.

At present (March 1865), the number of miles open in the United Kingdom is about 15,000, and as many as 400 bills for new lines of one kind or other are before the houses of parliament. Anticipatory of the chaotic condition into which the railway system might possibly subside, an act of parliament was passed in 1844, for the purpose of enabling government to purchase all lines in the United Kingdom, after they had respectively been 21 years in existence, dating from the passing of the act. This statute comes into operation in 1865, and five-sixths of the existing railways will eventually be subject to its provisions. The terms on which the purchase can be effected are these-a sum is to be paid equal to twenty-five years of the divisible profits, taken at an average of the preceding three years, or at a valuation if the company should prefer it. The enormous sum required to buy up existing lines perhaps £500,000,000 — and the generally imperfect character of government management, to say nothing of objections on political grounds, will probably prevent any formidable action under the statute just specified.

Aendents. During the year ending December 31, 1863, the number of railway accidents (collisions, running off lines, breaking of axles, &c.) in connection with passenger-trains in the United Kingdom was 52 -passengers killed, 13; passengers injured, 400; number of servants of companies killed, 7; injured, 35—total killed, 20; injured, 435. Number of accidents to goods and mineral-trains, 60; servants of companies killed, 13; injured, 43; other persons injured, 2. Grand total killed, 24; injured, 44.5 That out of about 205,000,000 passengers, only 13 were killed by accidents, is a fact most

ant of the general good management of raways in the United Kingdom.

FOREIGN RAILWAYS-The first foreign country that availed itself of railway locomotion was the small krgiom of Belgum, where a number of lines in ennetava with each other were constructed between 154 ani 186, and in about ten years afterwards the „tep was nearly completed in a well-devised rehenave scheme. At the beginning of sek be somer of miles in operation in Belum 73, aut eight-tenths of which were the

By

Various continental lines have been constructed by English contractors, who employed English In Italy, navvies for the purpose along with the usual ap paratus of trucks, wheelbarrows, &c. however, as lately as 1862, we observed that the work of construction was performed in a tedions and laborious manner by women and girls, who carried the earth in baskets on their heads, under the superintendence of taskmasters with whips-a sorrowful spectacle, and the more surprising as being in a country noted for its advancement in practical engineering.

In Canada, Nova Scotia, and Australia, railways have been successfully established; but in no British dependency has the railway system been latterly pushed forward with such activity or like lihood of advantage as in India, where, at the end of 1863, lines had been sanctioned which would cost £60,000,000, and about 1000 miles were opened for traffic. The undertakings have been materially assisted by government, by giving the land to the companies, by subventions in proportion to the actual outlay, and in some instances by guarantees of a minimum dividend of 5 per cent. to share holders. In the execution of railways in India, the mercantile community of Great Britain have taken a deep interest, for hitherto the dithculty and cost of transit of cotton and other bulky articles of

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export from that vast dependency has proved a serious detriment to commercial intercourse.

several newspapers devoted to railway subjects, issued weekly in London, the oldest of which is that known as Herapath's Railway Journal. We cannot close this notice without adverting to the important service rendered to the travelling community in the United Kingdom, by Bradshaw's Railway and Steam-navigation Guide, so well known to the public for its comprehensive and carefully constructed Time-tables (q. v.). In France, Germany, the United States, and other countries, railwaytime tables are now issued, weekly or monthly, on the plan so successfully established by Mr Bradshaw, whose Guide, however, is not excelled for accuracy, cheapness, or the extent of its information.

W. C.

Railways in the United States date from 1830, when a short line was made in Massachusetts. Since that year, the progress of railways has kept pace with, if not exceeded, that of Great Britain. All the American lines are constructed and worked by private companies, but in other respects they differ materially from similar undertakings in England. A few peculiarities of the American routine may be noted. The cost of procuring legislative authority to make the lines has usually been very small; the lines are mostly single, and the land for them has often been either given for nothing, or for a comparatively trifling consideration; the lines have generally no fences, and they go through populous towns along the open streets without restriction or fear of the consequences; the only care taken against accidents is for the driver to ring a bell, and it is usual to put up boards with the inscription: Look out for the locomotive when the bell rings;' tickets are sold by the guard or at offices throughout a town without fixing a date, just as ordinary articles are sold at a shop; the waitingrooms are generally of a poor description; as regards passengers, all varieties (negroes excepted) travel in one carriage; and lastly, there is a marked deficiency of porters, station-keepers, and other officials either to give information or render assistance to passengers. We may add, that the trains proceed at a comparatively slow rate, and (as came within our experience) seem to stop at the discretion of the conductor-the whole organisation and management being, in fact, on a loose and niggardly footing, though perhaps well adapted to the raw condition of a large part of the country. As the conductors receive back as well as sell tickets, there is practically no check on their intromissions, and it is jocularly remarked that they, for the most part, grow rich while in office. The seats in the 'cars,' as they are termed, are arranged in rows, with a passage up the middle for the conductor, who, by means of a small platform at each end, can step from carriage to carriage, and perambulate the train at pleasure, which he is constantly doing in the performance of his ticket-selling and ticket-plates after drawings of a licentious kind by Giulio taking duty. The wheels being attached to a swivel or bogie framework, the cars can turn round corners with the ease and security of a gentleman's carriage; this being the most ingenious of the American mechanical arrangements. Altogether, the railway system of the United States can In no shape be brought into comparison with that of the United Kingdom, for the two things are constituted on very different principles. The chief desire in America has been to open up the country at all hazards to railway communication, leaving improvements to be effected afterwards by the wealth which that communication is almost certain to create. On the contrary, in Great Britain and Ireland, there has been no pervading aim of this kind; every railway scheme has been legislated for and loaded with expenses as if it were a matter of indifference to the nation whether such projects should be carried out or not; and, as is well known, the comfort and convenience of passengers has, on the whole, at whatever cost, been a matter of primary concern to the companies. Works that may be consulted on railways: History of the English Railway, by John Francis, 2 vols., 1851; Our Iron Roads, by F. S. Williams, 1852; Railway Economy, by Dr Lardner; Smiles's Life of George Stephenson; Railways, by R. Ritchie; Railway Reform; its Importance, by W. Galt, 1864; Bradshaw's Railway Manual, and Shareholder's Guide and Directory, published annually; also

RAIMONDI, MARO ANTONIO, a celebrated engraver, was born at Bologna in 1487 or 1488. He studied for several years under the celebrated painter Francia, the head of the old Bolognese School. On quitting Francia's studio, he went to Venice, and having seen there, for the first time, prints from the woodcuts after Albert Dürer, he engraved on copper two sets of prints from that great master's designs, viz., those illustrating the Life of the Virgin,' and of the Life and Pas sion of Christ;' to that of the former he attached the cipher or monogram of Albert Dürer, and it is said that the artist complained of the deception to the senate, but only obtained an order that in future the monogram of Albert Dürer should not be copied; at all events, the latter set is without the monogram or mark. From Venice, R. proceeded to Rome, soon attracted the notice of Raphael, and engraved those works after that master that are so highly valued. R. greatly improved his style by imitating the remarkable delicacy and clearness exhibited in the engravings of Albert Dürer and Lucas Van Leyden; and though, perhaps, in these qualities he did not surpass, or perhaps equal, these masters, he went far beyond them in power and purity of drawing, which he carried further than any other engraver; indeed, it has been stated that Raphael himself assisted the engraver in drawing on several of the plates.

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After Raphael's death, having engraved some Romano, he was thrown into prison by Clement VII., but was afterwards liberated, taken under the protection of the pope, and fully employed. This prosperous state of matters, hov ever, soon terminated, for on the sack of Rome by the Spaniards under the Constable Bourbon, in 1527, he was plundered of all he had, and was obliged to flee and take refuge in Bologna, where he seems to have lived till the period of his death, the exact date of which is not known, but it must have been after 1539, for a print by him, after Giulio Romano, of the Battle of the Lapithe,' bears that date.

Good impressions of this eminent engraver's works bear, perhaps, a higher value than any other engravings; but there are numerous impressions from his plates to be met with which are of little value, having been thrown off after they had been greatly worn, and repeatedly retouched. The best impressions are without the name of any publisher. After the plates were taken from the stock of Tommaso Barlacchi, they came into the possession of Antonio Salamanca; afterwards, they passed through the hands of Antonio Lafreri, from thence to Nicholas van Aelst, and lastly, became the property of Rossi or De Rubeis, and by that time they had been completely worn out.-See catalogue of R.'s engravings by Baron Heineken, and Bartsch, vol. 14. Very fine collections are to be seen in the British Museum and the Louvre.