THE SPANISH WAR.

PAIN next began to attract the attention of the Romans. No nation that the republic had subdued defended its liberties with greater obstinacy. The war for the subjugation of the Spaniards commenced six years after the expulsion of the

Carthaginians from the western peninsula, and was exceedingly obstinate (B. c. 200). This struggle was protracted partly from the natural state of the country, which was thickly populated and studded with natural fortresses, partly from the courage of the inhabitants, and partly from the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were accustomed to employ their allies to subdue other nations. The chief enemies against whom the invaders had to contend were the Celtiberians and Lusitanians; and so often were the Romans defeated, that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than an expedition against such formidable foes. At length the Lusitanians found a leader worthy of their bravery (B. c. 146) in Viriatus, who, from a shepherd, became a hunter and a robber; and in consequence of his distinguished valour was chosen general-in-chief by his countrymen. This bold leader long maintained his ground against the Roman armies, and was equally formidable whether victorious or vanquished. Indeed, he was never more to be dreaded than immediately after defeat, because he knew how to make the most of the advantages arising from his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countryUnable to compete with Viriatus, the consul Cæpio treacherously procured his assassination (B. c. 140); and the Lusitanians, deprived of their leader, were easily subdued.

men.

The Numantine war in hither Spain had been allowed to languish while the Lusitanians remained in power; it was

now renewed with fresh vigour on both sides, and the proconsul, Pompey, laid siege to Numantia. He was soon compelled to raise the siege, and even to enter into a treaty with the Numantines; but, dreading the resentment of the senate, he disavowed the negotiation, and, by his great interest, escaped the punishment of his perfidy. A similar disgrace befell Pompey's successor, Mancinus; and the Romans, alarmed by the great victories of the Numantines, raised Scipio Emilianus a second time to the consulship, and assigned him Spain as his province. Scipio spent his entire consular year in restoring the discipline of soldiers dispirited by defeat, and neglected by their former generals; he then, with the inferior title of pro-consul, directed all his attention to concluding the war. Having obtained reinforcements from Africa, he laid close siege to Numantia, blockading every avenue to the town. After a protracted defence of more than six months, the Numantines destroyed their wives and children, set fire to their city, threw themselves on their swords or into the flames, and left the victors nothing to triumph over but empty walls (B. c. 133). Spain from henceforth became a Roman province, governed by two annual two annual prætors. A rich province in Asia was obtained nearly at the same time on much more easy terms. Attalus, king of Pergamus, dying, bequeathed his dominions to the Roman republic; and the senate took possession of the valuable inheritance, without heeding the remonstrance of the legitimate heir. But this acquisition of the wealthiest and finest districts in Asia Minor eventually cost the Romans very dear, both by the corruption of morals consequent on the great influx of Asiatic wealth, and the dreadful wars in which this legacy involved them with Mithridates, king of Pontus.

THE GRACCHI.

URING the Punic, Macedonian, and Span ish wars, the power of the senate, on which the administration of the government necessarily devolved, increased very rapidly, and the form of the constitution consequently was changed more and more into that of a hateful

aristocracy, against which the tribunes of the people struggled rather as factious demagogues than as honest defenders of popular rights. The aristocracy acquired vast wealth in the government of the provinces, and they employed their acquisitions in extending their political influence. The most obvious means of effecting this purpose was jobbing in the public lands, undertaking the management of extensive tracts, and sub-letting them to a crowd of needy dependants.

Tiberius Gracchus, the son of a consul, whose mother, Cornelia, was a daughter of the celebrated Scipio Africanus, witnessed with indignation the progress of corruption, and, to check it, resolved to enforce the Licinian prohibition against any individual renting more than five hundred acres of the public land. His office of tribune enabled him at once to commence operations; but before committing himself to the hazards of a public struggle, he sought the advice of the most virtuous and respectable men in Rome, all of whom sanctioned his project. Not daring to oppose directly the attempt to enforce a well-known law, the corrupt nobles engaged one of the tribune's colleagues to thwart his measures. Grieved, but not disheartened, Tiberius procured the deposition of this unworthy magistrate, and carried a law, constituting a triumvirate, or commission of three persons, to inquire into the administration of the public lands, and the violations of the Licinian law (B. c. 132). This

was followed by a proposal, that the treasures which Attalus, king of Pergamus, had bequeathed to the Romans should be distributed among the poorer classes of the people. During the agitation of this and some similar laws, his year of tribuneship expired, and the patricians resolved to prevent his re-election by absolute violence. So great was the uproar on the first day of the comitia, that the returning officer was obliged to adjourn the proceedings. Early in the following morning, when the assembly met, Tiberius received information that some of the nobles, accompanied by bands of armed retainers, had resolved to attack the crowd and take his life. Alarmed by this intelligence, he directed his friends to arm themselves as well as they could with staves; and when the people began to inquire the cause of this strange proceeding, he put his hand to his head, intimating that his life was in danger. Some of his enemies immediately ran to the senate, and reported that Tiberius Gracchus openly demanded a crown from the people. Scipio Nasica, a large holder of public lands, seized this pretext to urge the consul to destroy the reformer. On the refusal of that magistrate to imbrue his hands in innocent blood, Nasica, accompanied by a large body of the patricians, with their clients and dependants, assaulted the unarmed multitude; Tiberius was slain in the tumult, and many of his friends were either murdered or driven into banishment without any legal process. So great was the odium Nasica incurred by his share in the murder of his kinsman, that the senate, to screen him from popular resentment, sent him to Asia, under a pretext of public business, but in reality as a species of honourable exile: he died in a few months, the victim of mortification and remorse.

While the city was thus disturbed by civil tumults, Sicily was harassed by the horrors of a servile war; and the new province of Pergamus was usurped by Aristonicus, a natural brother of the late king Attalus. Both wars were terminated by disgraceful means, which the Romans would have scorned to have used at an earlier period of their history: Eunus, the leader of the slaves, was betrayed by some

wretches the consul had bribed: and Pergamus was not subdued until the springs which supplied water to the principal towns were poisoned.

Caius Gracchus had been a mere youth when his brother Tiberius was so basely murdered; but, undaunted by that brother's fate, he resolved to pursue the same course, and was confirmed in his determination by his mother Cornelia, a woman of undaunted spirit, animated by the purest principles of patriotism. He commenced his career by offering himself a candidate for the office of quæstor, to which he was elected without opposition. His integrity and ability in this station won him "golden opinions from all sorts of men." On his return to Rome he was chosen tribune of the people; and he immediately began to take measures for enforcing the agrarian law (B. c. 122). In his second tribuneship, he procured the enactment of a law, transferring the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senators to the equestrian order; a change rendered absolutely necessa ry by the impunity that had long been granted to the grossest delinquency and extortion. At length the senate set up Drusus, another tribune, as a rival in popularity to Gracchus. This wretched minion of an unprincipled faction made several grants of public money and remission of taxes to the people, with the direct sanction of the senate; and soon became a favourite with the ignorant multitude. A severer blow was the exclusion of Gracchus from the tribuneship when he stood candidate the third time, the officers having been bribed to make a false return; and this was followed by the election of Opimius, the most violent of the aristocratic faction, to the consulship.

A contest could not long be avoided: the nobles, confiding in the numbers of their armed retainers, were anxious to provoke a battle; but Gracchus, though personally menaced by the consul, was desirous that peace should be preserved. An accident precipitated the struggle. While the consul was performing the customary morning sacrifice, Antylius, one of his lictors, carrying away the entrails, said, with a contempt