ed up in war, with the rest, ought not to be distinguished from the fighting men. For as they were in their masters' service in times of peace, so did they undergo the like dangers with them in times of war. Insomuch that they were inferior to none either in skill or in strength; only they were subject to their masters. CHAP. V. A DESCRIPTION OF THE ROMAN ARMIES AND CAMPS; AND OF OTHER PARTICULArs, for whICH THE ROMANS ARE COMMENded. TOW NOW Now for the Romans, in providing one cannot but admire at the precaution of themselves of such household servants, as might not only serve at other times for the common offices of life, but might also be of advantage to them in their wars. And, indeed, if any one do but attend to the other parts of their military discipline, he will be forced to confess, that their obtaining so large a dominion has been the acquisition of their valor, and not the bare gift of fortune. For they do not begin to use their weapons first in time of war: nor do they then put their hands first into motion, while they avoided so to do in times of peace. But as if their weapons did always cling to them, they have never any truce from warlike exercises. Nor do they stay till times of war admonish them to use them. For their military exercises differ not at all from the real use of their arms. But each soldier is every day exercised, and that with great diligence, as if it were in time of war. This is the reason why they bear the fatigue of battles so easily for neither can any disorder remove them from their usual regularity; nor can fear affright them out of it; nor can labor tire them. Which firmness of conduct makes them always to overcome those that have not the same firmness. Nor would This description of the exact symmetry and regularity of the Roman army, and of the Roman encampments; with the sounding their trumpets and order of war, described in this and the next chapter, is so very like to the symmetry and regularity of the people of Israel, in the wilderness, that one cannot well avoid the supposal, that the one was the ultimate pattern of the other and he be mistaken that should call those their exercises bloodless battles; and their battles sanguinary exercises. Nor can their enemies easily surprise them with the suddenness of their incursions. For as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight, till they have walled their camp about. Nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven. Nor do they all abide in it; nor do those that are in it take their places at random. But if it happen that the ground be uneven, it is first levelled. Their camp is also four square by measure; and carpenters are ready in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their building for them. As for what is within the camp, it is set apart for tents: but the outward circumference: resembles a wall, and is adorned with towers at equal distances: where between the towers stand the engines for throwing arrows and darts, and for slinging stones; and where they lay all other engines that can annoy the enemy, all ready for their several operations. They also erect four gates, one at each side of the circumference; and those large enough for the entrance of the beasts, and wide enough for making excursions, if occasion should require. They divide the camp within into streets, very conveniently; and place the tents of the commanders in the middle: but in the very midst of all is the general's own tent, in the nature of a temple. Insomuch that it appears to be a city built on the sudden; with its market-place, and place for handicraft trades; and with seats for the superior and inferior officers: where if any differences arise, their causes are heard and determined. The camp, and all that is in it, is also speedily encompassed with a wall round about; and this by the multitude and the skill of the laborers. And if occasion require, a trench is drawn round the whole, whose depth is four cubits, and its breadth is equal.* that the tactics of the ancients were taken from the rules given by God to Moses. And it is supposed by some skilful in these matters, that these accounts of Josephus's, as to the Roman camp, armor, and conduct in war, are preferable to those in the Roman authors themselves. When, after this, they are gone out of their camp, they all march without noise, and in a decent manner and every one keeps his own rank, as if they were going to war. The foot When they have thus secured themselves, || the question is asked them, as if they were inthey live together by companies, with quiet- spired with a kind of martial fury and at the ness, and decency: as are all their other af- same time that they so cry out, they lift up fairs managed with good order and security. their right hands. Each company have also their wood, and their corn, and their water brought them, when they stand in need of them. For they neither sup nor dine as they please themselves singly, but all together. Their times also for sleep-men are armed with breast-plates, and heading, watching, and rising, are notified beforehand by the sound of trumpets. Nor is any thing done without such a signal. And in the morning the soldiery go every one to their centurions, and these centurions to their tribunes, to salute them. With whom all the superior officers go to the general of the whole army who then gives them the watch-word, and other orders; to be by them carried to all that are under their command. The same is observed when they go to fight: and thereby they turn themselves about on the sudden, when there is occasion for making sallies; and also as they come back when they are recalled in crowds. pieces; and have swords on each side: but the sword which is upon their left side is much longer than the other. For that on the right side is not longer than a span. Those footmen also that are chosen out from the rest of the foot soldiers have a spear, and a long buckler: besides a saw, a basket, a pick-axe, an axe, a thong of leather, and a hook; with provisions for three days. So that a footman has no great need of a mule to carry his burdens. The horsemen have a long sword on their right sides, and a long pole in their hand. A shield also lies by them obliquely on oneside of their horses; with three or more darts that are held in their quiver, having broad points, and not smaller than spears. They have also head-pieces, and breast-plates, in like manner as have all the footmen. And for those that are chosen to be about the general, their armor no way differs from that of the horsemen belonging to other troops. And he always leads the legions forth, to whom the lot assigns that employment. ་ Now when they are to go out of their camp, the trumpet gives a sound: at which time no body lies still; but at the first intimation they take down their tents; and all is made ready for their going out. Then do the trumpets sound again, to order them to get ready for the march. Then they lay their baggage suddenly upon their mules, and other beasts of burden; and stand as at the place of start- This is the manner of the marching and ing, ready to march. They also set fire to resting of the Romans: as also these are the their camp: because it will be easy for them several sorts of weapons they use. But when to erect another, and that it may not ever be they are to fight, they leave nothing without of use to their enemies. Then do the trum-forecast, nor to be done off hand. But counpets give a sound the third time, that they are sel is ever first taken before any work is beto go out; in order to excite those that, on gun and what has been there resolved upon any account, are a little tardy: that so no one is put in execution presently. For which reamay be out of his rank when the army son they seldom commit any errors; and if marches. Then the crier stands at the gene- they have been mistaken at any time, they ral's right hand, and asks them, thrice, in easily correct those mistakes. They also estheir own tongue, whether they be ready to teem any errors which they commit upon go out to war, or not? To which they reply, taking counsel beforehand, to be better than as often, with a loud and cheerful voice, " Wesuch rash success as is owing to fortune only. are ready." And this they do almost before *The design of two might be either to attack at a greater or less distance, for which reason one was longer than the other: or, that the soldier might not be left de Because such a fortuitous advantage tempis fenceless in case of losing one, but might immediately employ the other against his antagonist. B. them them to be. inconsiderate: while consultation, || the Rhine on the north, are the limits of this though it may sometimes fail of success, has empire ? One might well say, that the Roman this good in it, that it makes men more careful possessions are inferior to the Romans themhereafter. But for the advantages that arise selves. from chance, they are not owing to him that. This account I have given the reader; not gains them. And as to what melancholy acci- so much with the intention of commending the dents happen unexpectedly, there is this com- Romans, as of comforting those that have been fort in them; that they had, however, taken conquered by them and for the deterring the best consultations they could to prevent others from attempting innovations under their government. This discourse of the Roman military conduct may also be of use to such of the curious as are ignorant of it, and yet have a mind to know it. I return now from this digression. thein. Now they so manage the preparatory exercises of their weapons, that not the bodies of the soldiers only, but their souls may also become stronger. They are moreover hardened for war by fear. For their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from their ranks; but for slothfulness and inactivity, though it be but in a less degree. Their generals also are still more severe than their laws. For they prevent any imputation of cruelty toward those under condemnation, by the great rewards they bestow on the valiant soldiers. And the readiness of obeying their commanders is so great, that it is very ornamental in peace: but when they come to a battle, the whole army is but one body so well coupled together are their ranks; so sudden are their turnings about; so sharp their hearing, as to what orders are given them; so quick their sight of the ensigns; and so nimble are their hands when they set to work. Whereby it comes to pass, that what they do is done quickly; and what they suffer, they bear with the greatest patience. Nor can we find any examples where they have been conquered in battle, when they came to a close fight; either by the multitude of their enemies; or by their stratagems; or by the difficulties in the places they were in no, nor by fortune neither. For their victories have been surer to them than fortune could have granted them. In a case, therefore, where counsel still goes before action, and where, after taking the best advice, that advice is followed by so active an army, what wonder is it that Euphrates on the east, the ocean on the west, the most fertile regions of Libya on the south, and the Danube and CHAP. VI. PLACIDUS ATTEMPTS TO TAKE JOTAPATA, AND IS BEATEN OFF. VESPASIAN MARCHES INTO GALILEE. E ESPASIAN, with his son Titus, had tarried some time at Ptolemais, and had put his army in order. But when Placidus, who had over-run Galilee, and had besides slain a great number of those whom he had caught; (which were only the weaker part of the Galileans, and such as were of timorous souls :) saw that the warriors ran always to those cities whose walls had been built by Josephus, he marched furiously against Jotapata, which was of them all the strongest as supposing he should easily take it by a sudden surprise: and that he should thereby obtain great honor to himself among the commanders; and bring a great advantage to them in their future campaign: because, if this strongest place of them all were once taken, the rest would be so affrighted, as to surrender themselves. But he was mistaken in his undertaking. For the men of Jotapata were apprized of his coming to attack them, and came out of the city, and expected him there. So they fought the Romans briskly, when they least expected it: being both many in number, and prepared for fighting, and of great alacrity: as esteeming their country, their wives, and their children, to be in danger; and easily put the Romans to flight, and wounded many of them; and slew seven of * I cannot but here observe an Eastern way of speak-the word only or alone is not set down, but perhaps some ing, frequent among them, but not usual among us; where way supplied in the pronunciation. Thus Josephus here them, because their retreat was not made in a disorderly manner: because the strokes only touched the surface of their bodies, which were covered with their armor. in all parts; and because the Jews did rather throw their weapons upon them from a great distance, than venture to come hand to hand with them; and had only light armor on, while the others were completely armed. However three men of the Jews' side were slain; and a few were wounded. So Placidus, finding himself unable to assault the city, ran away. them soldiers chosen out of the rest. Then came the ensigns, encompassing the eagle, which is at the head of every Roman legion, the king and the strongest of all birds; which seems to them a signal of dominion, and an omen that they shall conquer all against whom they march. These sacred ensigns were followed by the trumpeters. Then came the main army in their squadrons, and battalions, with six men in depth: which were followed at last by a centurion; who, according to custom, observed the rest. As for the serBut as Vespasian had a great mind to fall vants of every legion, they all followed the upon Galilee, he marched out of Ptolemais, footmen, and led the baggage of the soldiers, having put his army into that order wherein which was carried by the mules, and other the Romans used to march. He ordered beasts of burden. But behind all the legions those auxiliaries which were lightly armed, came the whole multitude of mercenaries; and the archers, to march first; that they might and those that brought up the rear came prevent any sudden insults from the enemy; last of all, for the security of the whole and might search out the woods that looked army: being both footmen, and those in suspiciously, and were capable of ambuscades. their armor also; with a great number of Next to these followed that part of the Ro-horsemen. mans which was completely armed, both foot- And thus did Vespasian march with his men and horsemen. Next to these followed army, and came to the bounds of Galilee, ten out of every hundred, carrying along with where he pitched his camp, and restrained his them their arms, and what was necessary to soldiers, who were eager for war. He also measure out a camp: and, after them, such shewed his army to the enemy; in order to as were to make the road even, and straight; affright them, and to afford them a season for and, if it were any where rough and hard to repentance: to see whether they would change be passed over, to bed it ; and to cut down the their minds before it came to a battle; and at woods that hindered their progress, that the the same time he got things ready for bearmy might not be in distress, or tired with sieging their strong holds. And, indeed, this their march, Behind these he set such car- sight of the general brought many to repent riages of the army as belonged both to him- of their revolt; and put them all into a conself, and to the other commanders, with a con- sternation. For those that were in Josephus's siderable number of horsemen for their secu- camp, which was at the city called Garis, not rity. After these he marched himself, having far from Sepphoris, when they heard that the with him a select body of footmen, and horse- war was come near to them, and that the Romen, and pikemen. these came the mans would suddenly fight them hand to hand, After peculiar cavalry of his own legion; for there dispersed themselves, and fled not only before. were a hundred and twenty horsemen that they came to a battle, but even before peculiarly belonged to every legion. Next to the enemy came in sight; while Josephus, these came the mules, that carried the engines and a few others, were left behind. And as he for sieges, and the other warlike machines of saw that he had not an army sufficient to enthat nature. After these came the command-gage the enemy, that the spirits of the Jews ers of the cohorts, and tribunes; having about says, that those of Jotapata slew seven of the Romans, as they were marching off: because the Romans' retreat was regular; their bodies were covered over with their armor; and the Jews fought at some distance. His meaning is clear, that these were the reasons why they were sunk, and that the greater part would slew only, or no more than seven. I have met with many the like examples in the Scriptures, in Josephus, &c. but did not note down the particular places. This observation ought to be borne in mind upon many occasions. willingly |