FROG-BIT-FRONDE. domestication, and readily becomes familiar.-A species of F. (Pricephalus adspersus of Dr Smith) is much used as food by the native tribes of South Africa. Dr Livingstone says the Bechuanas suppose it to fall from thunder-clouds, because the pools suddenly filled with water after a thunder-shower become instantly alive with loud-croaking frogs, which have previously been hidden in holes at the roots of bushes. This species is nearly six inches long, and when cooked resembles chicken. FROG-BIT. See HYDROCHARIDEÆ. FROG-FISH (Batrachus), a genus of fishes of the family Lophiida, to which also the Angler (q. v.) or Fishing Frog belongs. They are remarkable for excessive ugliness. The head is larger than the body; flattened, and spiny; the mouth is very large, with many teeth; the lips are often furnished with filaments; the pectoral fins are supported by a short stalk or wrist. The skin is naked in some species, scaly in others. The species are numerous and widely distributed, but none of them is British. They hide themselves in the sand to surprise their prey. FROGGED, a term used in regard to uniforms, and applied to stripes or workings of braid or lace, as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the plain cloth of which a coat is made. events occurring 1326-1400. They are valuable documents for illustrating the character and manners of his age. The pageantry of feudal times brightens his pages; the din of arms, the shouting of knights, and the marshalling of troops, is ever and anon heard; while visions of fair women' rise before us as we read. The gorgeous feasts and spectacles in which F. so much delighted are set forth in copious details; and though F. is no philosopher, his shrewd observations and richly minute descriptions have helped others to philosophise. F.'s Chronicles first appeared at Paris about the end of the 15th c., under the title of Chroniques de France, d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, d'Espagne, de Bretagne, de Gascogne, Flandres et lieux d'alentour. The best edition is that of Buchon (15 vols., Par. 1824-1826). His poems have likewise been published by Buchon (Par. 1829). The beautiful MS. of the Chronicles in the library at Breslau was executed in 1468, and was secured to the town in a separate article, when Breslau capitulated to the French in the year 1806. The Chronicles have also been translated into Latin and several modern languages. England has two versions: Berners (reprinted in 1812); and the other in one executed in 1523-1525 by Bourchier Lord 1803-1805 by Thomas Johnes (reprinted by Bohn in 1845). The latter is the more exact; but the former, according to Sir Walter Scott, is the more artless and lively. It was FROND, in Botany, a term often used to designate the leaves of cryptogamous plants. originally introduced as distinctive of organs in which the functions of stem and leaf are combined, and was applied to the leaves of palms, &c. The term leaf is now very generally used even as to mosses, ferns, &c., and the term thallus is employed as to lichens. In the case of many Algae, the term F. is often used to designate the whole plant except its organs of reproduction. FROISSART, JEAN, a French poet and historian, was born at Valenciennes, in the year 1337. Being destined for the church, he received a liberal educa-ary and municipal borough, in the east of SomersetFROME, or FROME SELWOOD, a parliamenttion, but soon displayed a passion for poetry and the shire, on the Frome, a branch of the Avon, 12 miles charms of knightly society. At the age of 20, he south-south-east of Bath. The surrounding country began to write a history of the wars of his time, and is very picturesque, and the town, until modernised made several journeys to examine the theatre of the early in the present century by the formation of events he was about to relate. The composition two wide thoroughfares, was a strange old place, of this work, which forms the first part of his with narrow, crooked, and steep streets and lanes, Chronicles, occupied him about three years (1357-- many of which still remain. It has manufactures 1360). On its completion, he went over to England, of fine woollens, hats, silk, and cards for dressing where he was received with great favour by Philippa woollen cloth. Pop. (1861) 9523. It returns one of Hainault, wife of Edward III. In 1362, she member to parliament. The once celebrated forest appointed him clerk of her chapel and secretary of Selwood was in the vicinity, and part of it, within Two years afterwards, he visited Scotland, where the parish, remains in its original state. he became the guest of King David Bruce, and also of William Earl of Douglas. Everywhere the gay, poetical, quick-witted, and shrewdly observant Frenchman was welcomed and honoured. In 1366, be accompanied the Black Prince to Aquitaine and Bordeaux. He afterwards went with the Duke of Clarence to Italy. F., along with Chaucer and Petrarch, was present at the marriage of this prince, at Milan, with the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, and directed the festivities given by Amadeus VI., of Savoy, in honour of the duke. On the death of his protectress Philippa, F. gave up all connection with England, and, after many adventures, entered the service of Wenceslaus, Duke of Brabant, as private secretary. The duke was himself a poet, and F. made a collection of his verses, to which he added some of his own, and entitled the whole Meliador, or the Knight of the Golden Sun. On the death of Wenceslaus, he entered the service of Guy, Count of Blois, who encouraged him to continue his Chronicles. He now took a journey to the court of Gaston Phoebus, Count de Foix, that he might hear from the lips of the knights of Bearn and Gascony an account of their exploits. F. also made several other journeys, to collect information for his Chronicles. In 1394 he obtained the canonry and treasurership of the collegiate church of Chimay; in the following year visited England, where he was courteously and generously entertained by King Richard II.; and on his return spent the remainder of his life in completing his great work. He died at Chimay in 1410. F.'s Chronicles embrace the FRONDE, the name given to a political faction in France during the minority of Louis XIV., which was hostile to the court and the prime minister, Mazarin, and caused great domestic troubles from the year 1648 to 1654. The grasping and despotic policy of Mazarin, to whom Anne of Austria, the queen-regent, had abandoned the reins of government, had given offence to all classes. The princes and nobles saw themselves excluded from all high offices in the state, and their place supplied by foreigners; the parliament was threatened in its political rights, and the people groaned under the burden of taxes and administrative abuses. Parliament, therefore, commenced a course of determined opposition, refusing to register the royal edicts, more especially the disgraceful financial measures. Although the young king, then only nine years old, was obliged by several Beds of Justice' (q. v.) to compel the registration of the edicts, and to forbid the opposition of the parliament, the latter did not on that account change its bearing towards the FRONTINUS-FROSINONE. court. Mazarin, therefore, adopted violent measures. On the 26th August 1648, he ordered the president, Potier de Blancmenil, and the councillor, Peter Broussel, to be arrested. The people took up arms, dispersed the Swiss guard, and on the 27th August (la journée des barricades), erected barricades in the streets around the Palais Royal. The court now yielded, repealed several taxes, and promised a better administration of justice. This victory gave parliament courage; those members who continued to keep a sharp look-out on the court measures, and were styled by the adherents of Mazarin frondeurs -i. e., censurers (literally, 'slingers')-formed the majority. The court now resolved to suppress the movement, in which the populace of the capital had also taken part, by force of arms, and, on the 6th January 1649, removed secretly to St Germain, leaving Paris to be blockaded by the Prince of Condé with 7000 men. The parliament, whose cause was now publicly espoused by the Prince of Conti, the Dukes of Longueville, Beaufort, Orleans, Bouillon, Elbeuf, Vendôme, Nemours, the Cardinal De Retz, and the Maréchal de la Mothe, called upon the people to resist, and even negotiated with the stadtholder of the Netherlands for an auxiliary corps. In this critical position, the court, on the 11th March, concluded a compact at Ruel, in which both parties missed their object. After the return of the court to Paris in August, a new turn was given to the contest, the princes of the blood disputing the power with Mazarin. This, on the 18th January 1650, led to the sudden arrest of Condé, Longueville, and Conti. This arbitrary proceeding roused the provinces. Marshal Turenne assumed the title of lieutenant-general of the royal army for the liberation of the princes, united himself with the Archduke Leopold, and took several fortified towns, but was finally completely defeated by Mazarin's troops at Rhetel, on the 15th December. Mazarin returned in triumph to Paris, but found all parties against him, and his removal was insisted upon so urgently, that he was obliged to release the princes, and flee to the Netherlands. A disgraceful system of intrigue was now substituted for force of arms, which totally changed the position of parties, and converted the contest which had begun for the interests of the people into a court cabal. Turenne was gained over by the queen-regent, De Retz by Cardinal Mazarin, and Condé was obliged to flee for safety into Guienne. Meanwhile, Louis XIV., who had now attained his 14th year, endeavoured to induce the Prince of Condé to return; but the latter, mistrusting these overtures, repaired to Bordeaux in 1651, where he had many adherents, whence he commenced a regular war against the court, which might have had dangerous consequences, had not Turenne opposed the prince. On the 2d July 1652, an engagement took place between the two parties in the neighbourhood of Paris. Condé was on the eve of being defeated, when the gates of Paris were opened to him by the courage and zeal of his sister, the Duchess of Longueville, and thus a new turn was given to the contest. Paris itself, weary of these fruitless dissensions, now entered into negotiations with the court, demanding the final removal of Mazarin, who had meanwhile returned. This demand was complied with by Louis XIV., and a general amnesty proclaimed. Condé, who refused to enter into the compact, relying upon an army of 12,000 men placed at his disposal by Charles, Duke of Lorraine, quitted Paris on the 15th October 1652, and repaired to Champagne; and finally, finding no one disposed to take up arms in his cause, entered the Spanish service, for which he was declared a traitor. Soon after, Mazarin returned to Paris, and was again intrusted with the reins of government. Thus the royal power came forth victorious from this long contest, which, though it seemed to commence for the popular interests, gradually changed into a miserable party strife among the nobles. Compare Ste-Aulaire's Histoire de la Fronde (3 vols., Par. 1827). FRONTINUS, SEX. JULIUS, a Roman author who flourished in the second half of the first century. In 75 A. D. he was sent to Britain as governor of that island, and obtained a great reputation by his conquest of the Silures, and his vigorous maintenance of the imperial authority. He appears to have been twice consul in the course of his life, and died about 105 A. D. to have held several other important offices. He Several works are attributed to F., only two of which are certainly genuine, the Strategematicon, a treatise on the Art of War, in four books; and the De Aquaductibus Urbis Romæ, in two. The best edition of the first is that of Oudendorp (reprinted with emendations in 1779); of the second, that of Dederich (Wesel, 1841). The De Aqueductibus is an important contribution to the history of architecture. FRO'NTISPIECE, the name generally given to an engraved and decorated title-page of a volume, or an engraving placed opposite the title-page. The term is also sometimes used to denote the front or principal face of a building. FRONTO, M. CORNELIUS, was born at Cirta, in Numidia, and came to Rome in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, where he soon obtained a high reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Antoninus Pius intrusted to him the education of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, both of whom always retained the warmest admiration of their preceptor. F. gradually rose to the highest offices of the empire, became very wealthy, and died, it is thought, about 170 a. D. Until recently, nothing was known of F. as an author, except from a few fragments of a grammatical treatise (De Differentiis Vocabulorum); but in the year 1814, Angelo Mai discovered in the Ambrosian Library at Milan a palimpsest, which being deciphered, was found to contain a considerable number of F.'s letters with some short essays. These were published by Mai in 1815; and in the following year an edition was published at Berlin by Niebuhr, who wrote a critical preface, and also printed the commentaries of Buttmann and Heindorf. A few years afterwards, Mai found in the library of the Vatican at Rome another palimpsest containing more than 100 of F.'s letters. The result was a new edition of F. by Mai (Rome, 1823), embodying the new discoveries, which was republished at Celle in Germany (1832). The contents of these letters are on the whole unimportant, although they help to confirm the good opinion which history has formed of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius; and the style is vapid and declamatory. FRO'SCHDORF (originally, Crottendorf), called by the French Frohsdorf, is the name of a village in Lower Austria, rather more than 30 miles from Vienna, and not far from the frontiers of Hungary, on the right bank of the river Leitha. It is celebrated for its splendid castle, which in recent times has acquired a kind of political importance, from having been after 1844 the residence of the Duchess of Angoulême and the rendezvous of the elder Bourbon party. After the death of the duchess it came into the possession of the Comte de Chambord (q. v.), who has greatly beautified the interior. FROSINO'NE (the ancient Frusino of the Volscians) is a town of Italy, in the States of the FROST-BITE-FROUDE. Church, built on the slope of a hill above the junction of the river Cossa with the Sacco, about 48 miles east-south-east of Rome, on the high-road between Rome and Naples. It is the capital of a delegation of the same name, which is notorious for brigandage. The only interesting edifices are the palace of the papal delegate and the remains of an ancient amphitheatre. The costumes of F. are among the most admired of Italy. Pop. about 8000. FROST-BITE is caused by cold depressing the vitality of a part or the whole of the body. The frost-bitten part is at first blue and puffy, from the current of blood through it being suspended; then, should the cold be continued, it becomes pallid, and the painful tingling gives place to numbness and insensibility, and finally to actual death or mortification. Although a sudden violent application of cold may cause death of the tissues, by reducing the temperature to a degree incompatible with animal life, the most common cause of the destructive effects of frost-bite is undoubtedly the excessive reaction which occurs on sudden removal of the cold, or the application of heat; this is especially the case with moist cold. Baron Larrey believed that 'cold was merely the predisposing cause of frost-bite, and mentions that after the battle of Eylau the French soldiers did not experience any painful sensations during the severe cold varying from 10° to 15° below zero of Reaumur's thermometer; but when the temperature rose from 18° to 20', they felt the first sensations of cold, and applied for succour, complaining of acute pains in their feet, and of numbness, heaviness, and prickings in the extremities. The parts were scarcely swollen, and of an obscure red colour. In some cases, a slight redness was perceptible about the roots of the toes, and on the back of the foot; in others, the toes were Frog-Hopper (Cicada spumaria): insect, in the act of flight; d, the froth on a plant. destitute of motion, sensibility, and warmth, being a, larva; b, perfect insect, with wing-covers closed; c, perfect already black, and, as it were, dried.' Those of the men who indulged in the warmth of the bivouac fires suffered from frost-bite in much larger proportion than their more hardy comrades. In this country, most cases of frost-bite are very trifling, the most common being Chilblains (q. v.). Occasionally, in severe winters, more severe cases present themselves at the hospitals in the persons of houseless, ill-nourished unfortunates, whose constitutions have in many instances been enfeebled by spirit-drinking. The treatment of frost-bite consists in coaxing back by degrees the vitality of the part; this is most prudently effected by friction, at first with snow, then with water at ordinary temperature, no warmth being applied for some time. As the coldness subsides, the painful tingling returns, then redness and heat; in a short time, the latter will be above the natural standard, and if not moderated, the part will inflame, and perhaps mortify. It is well to remember that the part need not have been actually frozen for these symptoms to occur. The person with languid circulation who, coming home with cold wet feet, places them before the fire, or in warm water, may be 'frost-bitten' to all intents and purposes. powers. Cicada spumaria is an extremely common species in Britain. The frothy exudation is sometimes called CUCKOO-SPIT, sometimes FROGSPITTLE, from fancies entertained as to its origin. It is sometimes so abundant, particularly on willowtrees, that persons walking beneath are wetted by its continual dropping. In tropical countries, the Cercopidae are still more plentiful. Some of the tropical insects of this family are remarkable for their extraordinary forms, resulting from peculiar FROZEN STRAIT-FRUIT. peculiar albuminous ferment which exists in the juice of many ripening fruits. In 1716 he FRUGO'NI, CARLO INNOCENZO, a much admired and versatile Italian poet, was born at Genoa in 1692, and educated for the church. began to teach rhetoric at Brescia, at which time he had already acquired the reputation of being an elegant writer of prose and verse, both in Latin and Italian. In 1719 he taught in Genoa, and subsequently at Bologna. At the court of Parma, through the patronage of the Cardinal Bentivoglio, he was appointed poet laureate, the stated and prescribed compositions of which post were highly uncongenial to his original and discursive muse; nevertheless the Dukes of Parma shewed particular the death of Duke Antonio, and the accession of favour to the poet, who returned to Genoa on XII. released F. from his spiritual vows, which the Spanish Infante. In 1733, Pope Clement Shadows of the Clouds; and two years later, The Nemesis of Faith, a work in which the solemnity and sadness of religious scepticism are relieved by a singularly tender and earnest humanity. The book was written with great and even startling power, and not only cost F. his fellowship, but also a situation to which he had just been appointed in Tasmania. F., for the next few years, employed himself in writing for Fraser's Magazine and the Westminster Review. In 1856 appeared the first two vols. of his History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth, and in 1858 the third and fourth. The peculiarity of this work regarded as a history, consists in the use it makes of, and the value it places upon, the state documents of the time. The study of these documents has led F. to reverse not a few historical verdicts, especially that which has been passed upon Henry VIII.; but his decisions have by no means been generally, or even to any large extent, acquiesced had at all times been highly distasteful to him. in by other historical critics. The intellectual vigour and originality of the author's views and sentiments, and the mingled splendour and strength of his style, have, nevertheless, excited an extraordinary interest in the volumes. FROZEN STRAIT, a passage, if passage it can be called, leading north-westward from Fox's Channel towards Repulse Bay. It separates Southampton Island, in the north of Hudson's Bay, from Melville Peninsula, which stretches northward to the strait of the Fury and Hecla. Its narrowness, for it is only fifteen miles wide, renders it, even in the 66th degree of latitude, almost constantly impervious to navigation. FRUCTED. Trees when represented as bearing fruit are said heraldically to be fructed. FRUCTIDOR (Eng. 'fruit-month') was the name given in the republican calendar of France to the period extending from the 18th of August to the 16th of September. The 18th Fructidor of the year 5 (or the 4th September 1797) is celebrated as the day on which Barras, Rewbel, and Lepaux, members of the Directory, by a coup d'état, saved the republic from the machinations of the Royalists, who had got the upper hand in the Council of Five Hundred. The execution of the coup d'état was intrusted to General Augereau. FRUCTIFICATION (Lat. the producing of fruit), a term frequently employed in cryptogamic botany, sometimes to denote the whole reproductive system, and sometimes the fruit itself. FRUCTOSE, or FRUIT-SUGAR, known also as INVERTED SUGAR, occurs in association with glucose, or (according to the recent investigations of Buignet) with cane-sugar in many ripe acidulous fruits. In its composition, and in most of its properties, it closely resembles glucose, from which, however, it differs (1), in being incapable of crystallisation; and (2), in its action on polarised light; while both glucose (or grape-sugar) and canesugar exert a right-handed rotation upon a ray of polarised light, this variety of sugar exerts a lefthanded rotation; and hence the term inverted has been applied to it. The composition of fructose is represented by the formula CH 202. When boiled with dilute acids, fructose combines with the elements of water, and passes into glucose. A similar passage of this substance into glucose sometimes occurs spontaneously, as is seen in the gradual crystallisation of the sugar in dried fruits. It appears to be procurable only from cane-sugar (or sucrose) by the action either of acids or of a He A grand ode, in celebration of the capture of Oran in phanerogamous plants, is a mature ovary con- All that is external to the proper integuments of the seed in the ripe fruit is called the pericarp (Gr. peri, around; and karpos, fruit); and this, which varies extremely in size and other characters, usually consists of three layers, the outermost of which is called the epicarp (Gr. epi, upon); the middle one, the mesocarp (Gr. mesos, middle), or sometimes the sarcocarp (Gr. sarx, flesh); and the innermost, the endocarp (Gr. endon, within). These parts exhibit great variety, but it is generally the mesocarp which becomes succulent or fleshy, as in the peach, cherry, plum, and other drupes; and in the pear, apple, and other pomes. In drupes, or stone-fruits, the endocarp is the hard shell which immediately covers the seed; Drupe (section of a Peach). in pomes, it is the scaly lining of the seed-bearing cavities in the centre; in both drupes and pomes, the epicarp is the outer skin. So in melons, cucumbers, and gourds, the succulent part is the mesocarp, greatly developed, with a thin epicarp and a thinner endocarp. In the orange, however, and all of that family, the epicarp and mesocarp together form the rind, whilst the pulpy cells belong to the endocarp. In berries, as the gooseberry, grape, &c., the pulpy matter does not belong to any of the layers of the pericarp, but is formed from the placentas of the seeds. When the fruit, as the fully developed ovary, is considered as a modified leaf or leaves, the epicarp is viewed as representing the epidermis of the lower surface, the endocarp the epidermis of the upper surface, and the mesocarp the substance (parenchyma) of the leaf. The midrib of the leaf is traced in the dorsal suture of the fruit or of each component carpel, and the ventral suture is formed by its folding together and the conjunction of its edges. The dorsal and ventral sutures are very obvious in the pods of pease, beans, &c.; and even in fruits formed of several carpels intimately combined, they often become very apparent when the ripened fruit opens to allow the escape of the seeds. The opening or dehiscence (Lat. dehisco, to open) of fruits takes place in various ways; thus, the fruit sometimes resolves itself into its original carpels by separation through the dissepiments, which divide into two plates forming the sides of the valves, and the carpels further open by their sutures; the pericarp sometimes splits at once by the dorsal sutures of the carpels; sometimes it divides transversely, and throws off a lid; sometimes it opens more partially by pores, &c. Many fruits, however, are indehiscent, some of which are fruits having a very hard pericarp, as nuts, and some are fruits having a soft pericarp and much pulp. The decay of the pericarp is in these cases necessary to the liberation of the seeds, unless when this is accomplished by such means as the fruit becoming the food of animals, by which also the seeds of plants are often widely distributed. The decay of the pericarp seems intended, in many cases, to provide the first nourishment for the young plants which spring from the seeds. A classification of the different kinds of fruits is extremely difficult, although they afford characters of great importance in descriptive and systematic botany. A convenient primary division of fruits is into those which are formed from one flower, and those which are formed by incorporation of the ovaries of many flowers. Fruits formed from one flower, by far the most numerous of these two classes, are divided into apocarpous and syncarpous, or into apocarpous, aggregate, and syncarpous. Apocarpous fruits are formed of one carpel, and are either dry or succulent, dehiscent or indehiscent, one-seeded or many-seeded. Aggregate fruits, sometimes included among the apocarpous, are formeu of several or many free carpels; sometimes dry, sometimes succulent; sometimes arranged on a convex or elevated receptacle; which becomes succulent in the strawberry, and constitutes the edible part of the fruit; sometimes within a concave receptacle covered by the enlarged tube of the calyx, as in the rose. Syncarpous fruits are formed of several carpels, intimately united in their mature state, so as to form a berry, capsule, pome, silique, &c. Syncarpous fruits sometimes so completely resolve themselves into their original carpels, that these may be regarded as becoming separate achenia. Fruits formed by incorporation of the ovaries of many flowers (collective or anthocarpous fruits) are sometimes dry, as the cones of firs; sometimes succulent, as the pine-apple, the mulberry, and the fig. For further notice of different kinds of fruits, we must refer to particular articles in which they are described, as achenium, berry, capsule, drupe, nut, pome, pod, silique, &c., and to articles on the plants which produce them. A few plants, particularly the Conifera and Cycadacea, produce seeds really naked or destitute of pericarp. Many other seeds were formerly often described as naked, in which the pericarp exists intimately incorporated with the seed, as the seeds of grasses, Boraginea, Labiata, Umbelliferæ, &c. Their real nature is often made apparent by some trace of the style. The production of ripe fruit is exhaustive to the energies of a plant, and plants ordinarily annual may be preserved in life for several years by preventing it. Very young fruit-trees generally fail to bring fruit to perfection, and the first flowers of melons and gourds are often, for a similar reason, abortive; whilst, on the contrary, any circumstance that favours an accumulation of sap in a particular season, tends to render fruit-trees unusually productive in the next, as when the whole blossoms of a year are killed by frost, or when, from the coldness of the previous summer, flower-buds have not been formed in abundance. Whilst the vital energies of a plant are directed mainly towards the increase of its size, flower-buds are sparingly formed or not at all, as is often the case with fruit-trees growing very luxuriantly, and various modes are adopted to cause the production of flower-buds and of fruit by checking this luxuriance of growth, as by root-pruning, by cutting into the stem of wall-trees to a moderate depth, or by taking off portions of the bark of the stem. Grafting (q. v.) is also of use in this respect, as well as for the propagation of improved varieties of fruit-trees, the qualities of which would, in all probability, not be found exactly the same in their offspring by seed. In a very immature state, fruits are in general green and soft, and decompose carbonic acid gas in the sunlight, absorbing the carbon, and setting free the oxygen, like leaves and other green parts of plants. As they advance towards maturity, some of them become externally dry and hard, and cease to perform by their surface these functions of |