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THE seventh letter in the Roman | Nagy Karoly in 1811, studied at the college of alphabet, and in the modern alphabets Buda, and at the university of Pesth, and entered derived from it. For the history soon afterwards the administrative career, being of the character, see ALPHABET and attached to the Hungarian Council of Lieutenancy. letter C. The original and proper G. began writing early, and proved equally successsound of G (corresponding to Gr. 7) is ful when gossiping in the columns of Kossuth's that heard in gun, give, glad. But the famous Pesti Hirlap, and when engaged in translatsame natural process which turned the ing a masterpiece of Cervantes, filling the periodicals k-sound of c before e and i into that of s with tales and novels, or furnishing original works (see C), produced a similar change on G, so for the National Theatre. The sketches of countrythat before e and i it came to be pronounced life as it was, and as it still continues on the by the Latins like dzh. The sibilation of the vast plains of Hungary, are nowhere to be found letter g before i followed by a vowel, had begun as more vividly and more truly exhibited than in G.'s early as the 4th c. A. D., as is evident from the comedies and tales. The following are some of misspelling in inscriptions; in the case of c, the G.'s original compositions: Szirmay Ilona, a novel change can be detected much earlier. From the in 2 vols. (Pesth, 1836); Peleskei Notarius (The Latin, the dzh-sound of g passed into the Romanic Notary of Peleske, Pesth, 1838), a comedy in four tongues, and also into English. As a general rule acts-might be called the Hungarian comedy par in English, in words derived from the classical and excellence; Szvatopluk, a tragedy in five acts. Romanic languages, g has the hissing sound before Tales: Pusztai Kaland (An Adventure on the e, i, and y; it has its natural sound in all words Hungarian Prairies); Tengeri Kaland az Alfoelbefore a, o, and u; and it retains it in Teutonic doen (Seafaring Adventures in Lower Hungary); words even before e and i. Hortobágyi éjszaka (A Night on the Heath of Hortobágy). During the sojourn of the Hungarian Diet at Debreczin (1849), G. was editor of a journal combating extreme radical views.

G, in its proper power, belongs to the order of gutturals, k or c, g, ch, gh; of the two bare' gutturals, is the flat (or medial), and k the sharp; while gh and ch are the corresponding Aspirates (q. v.).

The following are some of the interchanges between g and other letters: Lat. ager, Gr. agros, Eng. acre, Ger. acker; Gr. triakonta, Lat. triginta; Gr. gonu, Lat. genu, Eng. knee; Lat. (g)nosco, Gr. gignosco, Eng. know; Lat. genus, Eng. kin; Gr. chen, Ger. gans, Eng. goose and gander; Lat, hesternus, Ger. gestern, Eng. yester (day); Lat. germanus, Span. hermano. The convertibility of g and y is seen in the old English participles in y, as yclad, corresponding to Sax. and Ger. ge-; in Ger. gelb, Eng. yellow; Ger. tag, Eng. day; Ger. mag, Eng. may; yate for gate; yard for garden, Lat. hortus. In Italian, gi is substituted for j, as Giulio for Julius; and in French, which has no w, that letter is represented by gu, as guerre, guarder, for Eng. war, ward or guard. G has been frequently dropt out, as Lat. nosco for gnosco; Eng. enough, compared with Ger. genug; agone, with ge-gangen; Lat. magister, Fr. maistre or maitre, Eng. master. May, Lat. Maius, contracted from Magius, is from a root mag, or (Sans.) mah, to grow: so that May is just the season of growth.

GA'BBRO, the name given by Italian geologists diallage. It is equivalent to euphotide or diallage to a variety of greenstone composed of felspar and rock.

GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER, a distinguished German philologist, was born at Altenburg, 13th October 1807, and educated at the universities of Leipsic and Göttingen. In 1833, he published his Eléments de la Grammaire Mandschoue, a new grammar, in which the entire idiomatic character of that language was developed in concise rules. He had, moreover, a share in the establishment of a journal devoted to Oriental science (Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes), and contributed to it some interesting papers on the Mongolian language. Along with J. Löbe, he also published a critical edition of the Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulfilas, with a Latin translation, and with a Gothic glossary and grammar appended (Leipsic, 1843-1846). G. was also the first philologist in Germany who undertook a scientific treatment of the dialects of the Finnish-Tartar stem. Besides a Syrjan grammar (Grundzüge der Syrjän ischen Grammatik, Altenburg, 1841), he furnished contributions to periodicals on the Mordvinian and Samoyed languages. He has since published some contributions to the science of language (Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde). The first three parts were issued in 1852, and the first volume of a collection of his Philological Fragments (Sprachwissenschaftliche Fragmente) appeared in 1859, and a DissertaGtion on the Passive Voice (Ueber das Passivum, Eine Sprachvergleichende Abhandlung) in 1860.

G, in Music, is the fifth sound of the natural diatonic scale of C, and the eighth sound of the chromatic scale. It stands in proportion to C as 2 to 3; is a perfect fifth above C, and the second harmonic arising from C as a fundamental note. In the solmisation of Guido Aretinus, the note G was called Sol, Re, or Ut, according as the hexachord began with C, F, or G. G major as a key has one sharp at its signature, viz., F sharp. minor has two flats at its signature, viz., B flat and E flat.

GABELLE, a French word, derived from the GAAL, JOZSEF, a Hungarian author, was born at German Gabe, gift or tribute, and originally used in

GABION-GABRIEL.

a general way to designate every kind of indirect tax, but more especially the tax upon salt. This impost, first established in 1286, in the reign of Philippe IV., was meant to be only temporary, but was declared perpetual by Charles V. It varied in the different provinces. Those that were most heavily taxed were called pays de grande gabelle, and those that were least heavily taxed, pays de petite gabelle. It was unpopular from the very first, and the attempt to collect it occasioned frequent disturbances. It was finally suppressed in 1789. The name gabelous is, however, still given by the common people in France to tax-gatherers.

GABION (Ital. gabbia, related to Lat. cavea, hollow), a hollow cylinder of basket-work, employed in field or temporary fortification, and varying in size from a diameter of 20 inches to 6 feet, with a height of from 2 feet 9 inches to 6 feet. In constructing it, stout straight stakes are placed upright in the ground in a circle of the required diameter, and are then wattled together with osiers or green twigs, as in the formation of baskets. The apparatus being raise‹l, when completed, from the ground, the ends are fastened, and the gabion is ready to be rolled to any place where it is desirable to form a breast-work against the enemy. Placed on end, and filled with earth, a single row of gabions is proof, except at the points of junction, against musketry fire, and by increasing the number of rows, any degree of security can be obtained. The gabion has the advantage of being highly portable, from its shape, while with its aid a parapet can be formed with far less earth, and therefore in less time, than in cases when allowance has to be made for the slopes on both sides, which are necessarily present in ordinary earthen walls. The sap-roller consists of two concentric gabions, one 4 feet, the other 2 feet 8 inches in diameter, with the space between them wedged full of pickets of hard wood. In sapping (see MINES), these serve as substitutes for mantlets.

Gabion.

Stuffed gabions are gabions rammed full of broken branches and small wood; being light in weight, they are rolled before soldiers in the trenches, and afford some, though not a very efficient, protection against musketry fire.

they are introduced in endless variety along with tracery, crockets, and other enrichments.

The towns of the middle ages had almost all the gables of the houses towards the streets, producing great diversity and picturesqueness of effect, as may still be seen in many towns which have been little modernised. The towns of Belgium and Germany especially still retain this medieval arrangement. In the later Gothic and the Renaissance periods, the simple outline of the gable became stepped and broken in the most fantastic manner. See CORBIE STEPS.

In Scottish law, a mutual gable or party-wall, belongs to the builder, and he can prevent his though partly built on the adjoining property, neighbour from availing himself of it for the support of his house, until he has paid half the expense of building it. For the law of England on this subject, see PARTY-WALL

GABOO'N RIVER, THE, takes its rise in the Crystal Mountains, a chain in Western Africa, running almost directly east and west, parallel to, and about 80 or 100 miles distant from, the coast. Flowing first in the direction of north to south, it afterwards curves toward the north, and empties itself into the Atlantic in lat. about 0° 30′ N., and long. 9° 10′ E. Its mouth forms a bay of some 10 or 12 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 7 to 15 miles. The total length of the river is said to be about 120 miles. The G. is deep and sluggish, the mass of its waters being tidal; 60 miles from its mouth the tide rises to a height of from seven to nine feet. The climate is unhealthy; but the profits of the trade in ivory, which is obtained abundantly in the territories through which the river flows, induced a French colony to settle and build a fort at the mouth of the river in 1842 or 1843. In the same year, an American mission, which still continues in active operation, was established at Baraka, about eight miles up the river. The Gaboon country, besides ivory-of which, when the home demand is brisk, it yields about 80,000 pounds annually-produces ibar-wood, a dye-wood from which a darkred dye is obtained, ebony, and copal of inferior quality. The banks of the river, from its source to the ocean, are occupied by about a dozen tribes, chief of which is the Mpongeve, who hold its mouth. This division of territory renders the ivory much more costly than it otherwise would be, the first owners in the interior not being allowed to take it direct to the white trader at the coast, but compelled to transmit it through the hands of the

Gabionnade is a line of gabions thrown up by troops as a defence, after being driven back from other more solid positions. In carrying a well-intervening tribes, each of whom makes a profit. defended fortress, gabionnade after gabionnade has sometimes to be stormed before the besieged can be compelled to surrender.

GABLE, the triangular part of an exterior wall of a building between the top of the side walls and the slopes of the roof. The whole wall of which the gable forms the top is called a gable-end; partywalls, or the walls which separate two contiguous houses, and which belong equally to both houses, are called in Scotland 'mutual gables.'

The gable is one of the most common and characteristic features of Gothic architecture. The end walls of classic buildings had Pediments (q. v.), which followed the slope of the roofs, but these were always low in pitch. In medieval architecture, gables of every angle are used with the utmost freedom, and when covered with the moulded and crocketed copes of the richer periods of the style, give great variety and beauty of outline.

Gablets, or small gables, are used in great profusion in the more decorative parts of Gothic architecture, such as canopies, pinnacles, &c., where

is, in the Jewish angelology, one of the seven arch-
GABRIEL (Heb. the man or mighty one of God)
angels. He appears in the book of Daniel as the
interpreter of the prophet's vision (chap. viii.), and
announces the future appearance of the Messiah
(chap. ix. 21-27). In the New Testament, he
reveals to Zacharias the birth of John the Baptist
(Luke, i. 11), and to the Virgin Mary the birth of
Christ (Luke, i. 26). According to the Rabbins,
he is the angel of death for the people of Israel,
whose souls are intrusted to his care. The Tal-
mud describes him as the prince of fire, and as
the spirit who presides over the thunder and the
ripening of fruits. When Nebuchadnezzar besieged
Jerusalem, G. is believed to have entered the Temple,
by command of Jehovah, before the Assyrian
soldiery, and burned it, thereby frustrating their
impious intentions. G. has also the reputation
among the Rabbins of being a most distinguished
linguist, having taught Joseph the 70 languages
spoken at Babel, and being, in addition, the only
angel who could speak Chaldee and Syriac. The

GACHARD-GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Mohammedans hold G. in even greater reverence than the Jews, and regard him as the chief of the four most favoured angels who form the council of God; he is called the spirit of truth, and is believed to have dictated the Koran to Mohammed.

custom dues and tolls. It is an important entrepôt for manufactures and foreign goods from Tripoli to the interior, and for exports of ivory, bees-wax, hides, ostrich-feathers, gold, &c., from the interior to Tripoli. Previous to 1856, about 500 slaves, principally females, were annually imported at G.; but in that year a decree was issued by the sultan, peremptorily forbidding the traffic, which accordingly has been completely abolished. Pop. 4000, who are devoted Mohammedans.

GAD-FLY. See BoT and TABANUS.

GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER, principal archivist of Belgium, was born in France about the year 1800. He was originally a compositor; but having removed to Belgium, he took part in the revolution of 1830, and was naturalised in 1831. In the same year he was appointed to the useful and honourable post which he still retains (1862). G. has spent much time in GA'DIDÆ, an important family of malacopterous examining the documents relating to Belgian history, fishes, having a moderately elongated body covered which are to be found in the national archives and with small soft scales, the head naked, the fins all in those of Spain. His principal writings are, Ana- soft and destitute of spines, the ventral fins placed lectes Belgiques (1830); Documents Politiques et Diplo- under the throat and pointed, one dorsal fin or more, matiques sur la Révolution Belge de 1790 (1834); the air-bladder large. Some of the species are small, Mémoires sur les Bollandistes et leurs Travaux depuis but others attain a large size. To this family belong 1773 jusqu'en 1789 (1847); Correspondance de Guil- the Cod, Ling, Hake, Dorse, Haddock, Whiting, laume le Taciturne (1847-1851); Correspondance de Coal-fish, Burbot, &c. The species are widely distriPhilippe II., sur les Affaires des Pays-Bas (1848-buted. Most of them are marine. A few, as the 1851); Correspondance du Duc d' Albe sur l'Invasion Burbot, are fresh-water fishes. The more important du Comte Louis de Nassau en Frise (1850); Retraite species are separately noticed. et Mort de Charles-Quint (1854), and Relation des Troubles de Gand sous Charles-Quint (1856). Prescott, the American historian, speaks highly of G., and of the importance of his labours in regard to V. See Prescott's edition of Robertson's History the history and character of the Emperor Charles of Charles V. (Boston, 1857). Recently (1859), G. published a series of historical documents bearing unfavourably upon the characters of Counts Egmont and Horn, which had the effect of stopping proceedings in regard to the erection of a national monument to these two noblemen.

GAD, the first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, was the seventh son of Jacob. His name is differently explained. The tribe of Gad numbered in the wilderness of Sinai more than 40,000 fighting-men. Nomadic by nature, and possessing large herds of cattle, they preferred to remain on the east side of Jordan, and were reluctantly allowed to do so by Joshua, on condition of assisting their countrymen in the conquest and subjugation of Canaan. Their territory lay to the north of that of Reuben, and comprised the mountainous district known as Gilead, through which flowed the brook Jabbok, touching the Sea of Galilee at its northern extremity, and reaching as far east as Rabbath-Ammon. The men of Gad-if we may judge from the eleven warriors who joined David in his extremity-were a race of stalwart heroes; 'men of might, and men of war fit for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift as the roes upon the mountains' (1 Chron. xii. 8). Jephthah the Gileadite, Barzillai, Elijah the Tishbite, and Gad the seer,' were also in all probability members of this tribe.

GADA'MES, or more accurately GHADAMES (the Cydamus of the Romans), the name of an oasis and town of Africa, the centre of divergent routes to Tunis, Tripoli, Ghat, and Tidikelt, is situated on the northern border of the Sahara, in lat. 30° 9' N., long. 9° 17' E., on the south-western boundary of the pashalic of Tripoli, and 310 miles south-west of the town of that name. It contains six mosques and seven schools; but the education offered to the young is limited to the reading of the Koran and a little Arabic writing. The gardens of G. grow dates, barley, wheat, millet, &c., and are watered by the hot spring (89° Fah.), from which the town had its origin. The climate is dry and healthy, though very hot in summer. The revenue of G., estimated at 10,000 mahboobs (£1700), is derived from annual tributes levied on property, and from

GA'DWALL (Anas strepera, or Chauliodus strepera), a species of duck, not quite so large as the mallard, a rare visitant of Britain, but abundant in in the north of Africa. Being a bird of passage, it is many parts of the continent of Europe, and equally so in Asia and in North America. It is also found a native both of arctic and of tropical regions. The

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Gadwall (Anas strepera).

G. breeds in marshes, and lays from seven to nine eggs. Except at the breeding season, it is usually seen in small flocks, and an individual is sometimes to be found in a flock of other ducks. Its voice is loud and harsh. It is much esteemed for the table, and is common in the London market, being imported chiefly from Holland.

GEA, or GE, according to the Greek mythology, the goddess of the earth, appears in Hesiod as the first-born of Chaos, and the mother of Uranus, Pontus, and many other gods and titans. As the vapours which were supposed to produce divine inspiration rose from the earth, it was natural that G. should be regarded as an oracular divinity; and, in fact, the oracles at Delphi and Olympia were believed to have belonged to her in the earlier ages of their history. Her worship extended over all Greece, and she had temples or altars in most of the important cities. At Rome, G. was worshipped under the name of Tellus.

GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The term Gaelic (Gwyddelian or Gadhelic) is used in two senses. In its wider signification, it designates

GAELIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

that a popular and unwritten literature existed in that native and idiomatic Gaelic, in the poetry handed down by tradition, or composed by native bards innocent of all extraneous education in the written language of Ireland.

The first books printed for the use of the Scottish Highlanders were a translation of Knox's Prayer Book in 1567, by John Carsewell, Bishop of the Isles; a translation of Calvin's Catechism, in 1631; a translation of the Psalms of David, begun in 1659, and completed in 1694; and a translation of the Bible, published by the Rev. Robert Kirke, minister of Balquhidder, in 1690. All these works are in the Irish orthography and Irish dialect; the lastmentioned work, indeed, is nothing more than a reprint of Bishop Bedell's Irish version of the Bible, with a short vocabulary of Scottish Gaelic words, to adapt it to the use of the Scottish Highlanders. The first translations into the Scottish Gaelic were of Baxter's Call to the Unconverted, published in 1750; of the Psalms of David, in 1753, in 1787, and in 1807; of the New Testament, in 1767 and 1796; of Alleine's Alarm, in 1781; of the Old Testament, in 1783-1787, and in 1820; and of the Old and New Testaments, in 1826.

Vocabularies of the Scottish Gaelic were published in 1690, in 1702, in 1741, in 1795, and in 1815. The first Dictionary, by R. A. Armstrong, appeared in 1825; the largest and best was published under the auspices of the Highland Society of Scotland, in two quartos, in 1828. The best grammar is that of the Rev. Alexander Stewart, minister at Dingwall, published in 1801, and reprinted in 1812.

the northern branch of the Celtic languages, features of a native language, existed among the comprehending the Irish, the Highland-Scottish, Scottish Highlanders as a spoken dialect; and and the Manx. See CELTIC NATIONS and IRISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. In its narrower signification, it designates the Highland-Scottish dialect, also known by the name of Erse or Irish. Mr W. F. Skene, one of the latest and best informed writers on the subject, holds that the differences between the language spoken by the Scotch Highlanders and the language spoken by the native Irish are (1) partly in the pronunciation, where the accentuation of the language is different, where that peculiar change in the initial consonant, produced by the influence of the previous word, and termed by the Irish grammarians eclipsis, is unknown except in the sibilant, where the vowel sounds are different, and there are even traces of a consonantal permutation; (2) partly in the grammar, where the Scottish Gaelic prefers the analytic form of the verb, and has no present tense, the old present being now used for the future, and the present formed by the auxiliary verb, where the plural of one class of the nouns is formed in a peculiar manner, resembling the Anglo-Saxon, and a different negative is used; (3) partly in the idioms of the language, where a greater preference is shewn to express the idea by the use of substantives, and the verb is anxiously avoided; and (4) in the vocabulary, which varies to a considerable extent, where words now obsolete in Irish are still living words, and others are used in a different sense.' -The Dean of Lismore's Book, introd. pp. xiv. xv. (Edin. 1862). The origin of the differences thus described is a question still in dispute. Mr Skene contends that they are ancient, and enter into the organisation of the language. The Irish scholars, on the other hand, hold that they are comparatively modern and unimportant, and little more than provincial corruptions of the mother-language of Ireland. The late Mr Richard Garnett, one of the most learned of English philologists, is on the Irish side, holding 'that Irish is the parent tongue, that Scottish Gaelic is Irish stripped of a few inflections, and that Manx is merely Gaelic with a few peculiar words, and disguised by a corrupt system of ortho-nary dissertation by Mr W. F. Skene. The volume graphy; and, again, that the language of the Scottish Highlands 'does not differ in any essential point from that of the opposite coast of Leinster and Ulster, bearing, in fact, a closer resemblance than Low German does to High German, or Danish to Swedish.'-Philological Essays, pp. 202, 204 (Lond. 1859). That the north of Ireland, and the Scottish Highlands and West Islands, were, at an early period, peopled by the same race, or races, is admitted on both sides. Mr Skene further admits, that from about the middle of the 12th c. to about the middle of the 16th c., Ireland exercised a powerful literary influence on the Scottish Highlands; that the Irish sennachies and bards were heads of a school which included the West Highlands; that the Highland sennachies were either of Irish descent, or, if they were of native origin, resorted to bardic schools in Ireland for instruction in the language and the accomplishments of their art; that in this way the language and literature of the Scottish Highlands must have become, by degrees, more and more assimilated to the language and literature of Ireland; and that it may well be doubted whether, towards the middle of the 16th c., there existed in the Scottish Highlands the means of acquiring the art of writing the language except in Ireland, or the conception of a written and cultivated literature, which was not identified with the language and learning of that island. Mr Skene holds, at the same time, that a vernacular Gaelic, preserving many of the independent

The oldest written poetry in the Scottish Gaelic is preserved in The Dean of Lismore's Book, written between 1511 and 1551, by Sir James Macgregor, vicar of Fortingall, and Dean of Lismore. It is now in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. Selections from it have been published at Edinburgh during the present year (1862), with translations by the Rev. Thomas M'Lauchlan, as well into English as into modern Scottish Gaelic, and with a prelimi

contains nine pieces ascribed to 'Ossian, the son of Finn,' who speaks of himself as contemporary with St Patrick, and pieces by later and less known writers, including a few of knightly or noble rank, such as Gerald Fitzgerald, fourth Earl of Desmond, in Ireland; Isabella Campbell, wife of the first Earl of Argyle; and 'Duncan MacCailein, the Good Knight,' believed to be Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenurchy. The literary merit of the compositions is very slender.

The bibliography of the scanty literature of the Scottish Gaelic will be found in Reid's Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica (Glasg. 1832). The modern names of most note are those of Robert Calder Mackay, or Robb Donn, as he is more commonly called in his native Sutherland, whose poems were published at Inverness in 1829; and Duncan Ban McIntyre, of Glenorchy, whose poems were published at Glasgow in 1834. The former was born in 1714, the latter in 1724; both were self-educated. The traditional prose literature has been collected and illustrated by Mr J. F. Campbell of Islay, in three pleasing volumes, Popular Tales of the West Highlands (Edin. 1860-1862).

Mr Skene has very clearly and fairly stated the long-disputed question as to the authenticity of the famous Poems of Ossian, published first in English, and afterwards in Gaelic, by Mr James Macpherson. The conclusions arrived at are: 1. That the characters introduced into Macpherson's poems were not invented by him, but were really the subjects

GAETA-GAGE.

of tradition in the Highlands; and that poems certainly existed which might be called Ossianic, as relating to the persons and events of that mythic age. 2. That such poems, though usually either entire poems of no very great length, or fragments, had been handed down from an unknown period by oral recitation, and that there existed many persons in the Highlands who could repeat them. 3. That such poems had likewise been committed to writing, and were to be found to some extent in manuscripts. 4. That Macpherson had used many such poems in his work; but by joining separated pieces together, and by adding a connecting narrative of his own, had woven them into longer poems, and into the so-called epics.

The Scottish Gaelic speech is everywhere gradually, and in some places rapidly, losing ground; but it is still used, wholly or partially, in the public religious services of about 180 out of about 1000 congregations of the Church of Scotland.

GAETA (the Cajeta of the Latins), a strongly fortified maritime town of the Neapolitan province Terra di Lavoro, is picturesquely situated on an abrupt promontory projecting into the Mediterranean, and connected with the mainland by a low and narrow isthmus protected by solid walls. On the summit of the promontory stands the circular tower D'Orlando, said to be the ancient mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus, the friend of Augustus. The beauty of the bay of G., which almost rivals that of Naples, has been celebrated by Homer, Virgil, and Horace. Cajeta, the ancient name of G. derives its origin, according to Virgil, from its being the burial-place of Cajeta, the nurse of Eneas. On the dismemberment of the Roman empire, G. became a centre of civilisation and commercial prosperity, and reached still further importance after the decadence of the eastern empire. In the growth of this early municipality is foreshadowed the commercial life and grandeur of the later Italian republics. Both in ancient and modern times, G. has sustained remarkable | sieges, and recently it has been the theatre of several interesting events. In 1848, it became the refuge of Pope Pius IX., when the revolution at Rome compelled him to retire. In 1860, after the defeat of the Neapolitans on the Volturno by the forces of Garibaldi, G. was the last stronghold of the Bourbon dynasty of Naples, and surrendered after a protracted siege to General Cialdini. Many interesting classic remains have been found in G., including a fine marble vase by the Athenian sculptor Salpione. Its vicinity abounds in remains of Roman villas, &c. The citadel, which is of great strength, contains in its tower the tomb of the Constable Bourbon, killed at the taking of Rome in 1527. The inhabitants of G., who number about 15,000, derive their chief profits from the fisheries and their coasting-trade in oil, wine, and fruit-the chief productions of the surrounding country.

GÆTU LIA, an ancient country of Africa, situated south of Mauritania and Numidia, and embracing the western part of the desert of Sahara. Its inhabitants belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family of North and North-western Africa; they were not in general black, though a portion of them dwelling in the extreme south, towards the Niger, had approximated to this colour through intermixture with the natives and climatic causes, and were called Melanogætuli, or Black Gætulians' (see Ptol. iv. 6, s. 16). The Gætulians were savage and warlike. They came into collision with the Romans for the first time during the Jugurthine war, when they served as light-horse in the army of the Numidian king. Cornelius Cossus Lentulus

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led a force against them, and for his success obtained a triumph and the surname of Gætulicus (6 A. D.). The ancient Gætulians are believed to be represented in modern times by the Tuaricks or Tawáreks.

GAFF, in a ship or boat, the spar to which the head of a fore-and-aft sail is bent, such sail having its foremost side made fast by rings to the mast, and its lower edge, in most instances, held straight by a boom. The thick end of the gaff is constructed with jaws'. to pass half round the mast, the other half being enclosed by a rope; this serves to keep it close when the sail is hoisted or lowered. A gaff,

A, Gaff; B, Gaff-topsail-yard; C, Boom; D, Sheet;
E, Gaff-topsail.

with the sail called 'driver' or 'spanker,' and the gaff-topsail, which is a small sail carried on the topmast above the gaff, are shewn in the accompanying illustration.

GAFFLES, a name applied to the levers by means of which cross-bows were bent.

GAGE, THOMAS, an English general, who became governor of Montreal in 1760, and in 1763 succeeded general (afterwards Lord) Amherst as commanderin-chief of the British army in America. In 1774, Britain had already become very serious, General G. was appointed governor of Massachusetts. In peaceful times, his administration might in all probability have been popular and successful; but period. It may indeed be doubted whether any he was unequal to the exigencies of that trying one, whatever his abilities, could, while restricted to the rigorous policy of the home government, have succeeded in preserving the colony to the English tion to seize the military stores at Concord, and thus In April 1775, General G. sent an expedi provoked the battle of Lexington, the first explosion of the American revolution. Soon after (May 5) the provincial congress resolved that no obedience was in future due to him [Gage], and that he ought to be guarded against as an unnatural and inveterate enemy. According to Bancroft, Gage was neither fit to reconcile nor to subdue.' He was recalled, and sailed for England in the autumn of 1775. He died in 1787.

when the difficulties between the colonies and Great

crown.

GAGE (Lat. vadium or wadium) signifies a pawn or pledge, and is derived, says Cowel, from the French gager. Hence, by changing g into w, we have wage and wager; as 'wager of law,' wager of battle,' wherein a person gave his pledge that he would sustain his affirmation; and, in the latter case, the glove was sent as a material pledge to

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