GHILAN-GHIUSTENDIL.

was elevated to the hospodarat of Wallachia in 1834. Nevertheless, he soon exhibited liberal and enlightened tendencies. He founded schools for primary instruction in every village, lightened the burdens of the peasantry, commenced the enfranchisement of the gipsies, and assisted in the organisation of a national party, since known as Young Roumania. Russia naturally took the alarm, and gradually, under her influence, a twofold opposition was excited against him, viz., an opposition of the extreme liberals, and also of the old boyards (the landed proprietors), who formed the Tory party, and were his personal enemies; the result of which, after many intrigues and plots, was that, in 1842, he was ordered to resign his dignity by the Turkish sultan. He now betook himself to Vienna, where he lived quietly till 1853, when he returned to Wallachia, to find himself once more popular; and in 1856 he was elected 'Caïmacam' of the principality, to the great joy of the young Roumanian party both in Moldavia and Wallachia.

and not long after wrote several pieces for the theatre. On her marriage with Prince KoltzoffMassalsky, who belonged to one of the oldest Russian families, she accompanied her husband to the court of St Petersburg. Since 1856, however, she has fixed her residence at Aarau, in the canton of Aargau, in Switzerland, and devotes herself wholly to literary labour. Her first important work, La Vie Monastique dans l'Eglise Orientale, was published at Paris and Geneva in 1855. This was followed by two works written in Italian, Gli Eroi della Rumenia (The Heroes of Roumania) and I Rumeni ed il Papato (The Roumans and the Papacy). Her studies in Switzerland have also resulted in a volume entitled La Suisse Italienne. Besides these, she has also contributed largely to various foreign reviews. Her religious writings are marked by a pious faith in the great doctrines of Christianity, an indifference to outward forms, and a tendency to mysticism, while her political opinions are liberal to a degree that scandalised the court of St Petersburg during her residence there.

GHILA'N, a border province of Persia, consists of the south-western portion of the narrow strip of country lying between the Elburz range and the Caspian Sea. It extends between lat. 36° 30′ and 38° 30′ N., and long. 48° 33′ and 50° 30′ W. It is upwards of 150 miles in length, and about 70 miles at its broadest part. The province is subject, from the lowness of the land, to frequent inundations, and indeed during greater part of the year is little better than a swamp. Forest and mulberry trees, with some rice, are grown. extent in square miles, and its population, have not yet been ascertained. The climate is unhealthy.

Its

GREGORY GHIKA X., hospodar of Moldavia, born at Botochani, in Moldavia, 25th August 1807, was appointed Hetman, or commander-in-chief of the militia, in 1826, Secretary of State in 1842, and Minister of Finance in 1843, under the hospodarat of Michael Stourdza. But as the system of the government became more and more Russian in its character, he resigned his functions, and passed into the ranks of the liberal opposition, of which he soon became one of the chiefs. In 1849, the sultan appointed him hospodar, in order to counteract the influence then exercised by Russia in the adjoining principality. His tenure of office may be divided into three distinct periods. In the first, his efforts at reform were crippled by the presence of Russian troops in the Principalities, in violation of the conGHIRLANDAJO, or CORRADI, DOMENICO, vention of Balta-Liman. The second, commencing an eminent painter of the early Florentine school, with the departure of the Russians in 1851, was was born at Florence in 1451. From his youth, he marked by many excellent measures; he organised was educated to the craft of the goldsmith by a good police system, augmented the effective force his father, who received the name of Ghirlandajo of the militia, founded schools for superior and on account of his being the inventor of some secondary instruction at Niamtzo, Houch, Galatz, silver ornaments of great elegance, in the form &c., promulgated an administrative code the first of a wreath or ghirlanda, which became the great step towards the reform of abuses-increased favourite head-dress of the Florentine beauties municipal resources, and at his own expense built of his day. At the age of 24, G. abandoned workaqueducts, and printed important historical MSS. ing in gold, and set about qualifying himself The re-occupation of the Principalities by Russia in for the calling of a painter. He lived to become 1853 suspended his labours, and resigning the not only a famous and lauded artist, but also one hospodarat provisionally, he withdrew to Vienna, of the most progressive and original masters of his but resumed his functions in the end of the following also left fine easel paintings, both in oil and disage. His greatest works are frescoes, but he has year. The third period of G.'s rule was initiated by the formation of a liberal ministry, by the temper, and his composition in mosaic--or 'eternal support of which he effected, among other things, painting,' as he termed it-are unrivalled for the a radical reform of the penitentiary system, the brilliant dyes of the colouring and the delicate softabolition of serfdom (1855), and of the censorship of Dess with which they are blended and graduated. public journals (1856), and the establishment of The Capella di Sassetti, in Florence, contains a noble foreign merchant companies for the navigation of series of G.'s frescoes, illustrative of both historical the Pruth and the Sereth (1856); while he also and legendary incidents in the life of St Francis. encouraged the growth of a union feeling among They are strongly characterised by the wonderful the Roumanian party in both principalities. His mastery of intense and varied human expression, tenure of office expiring in 1856, G., whose private which, more than accurate delineation of form, was fortune had been rather diminished than increased the great merit of G.'s paintings. The Church of by his dignity, quitted Moldavia, and went to reside Santa Maria Novella is also rich in this artist's in France. His death occurred in the end of July works, being adorned by a set of frescoes representing scenes from the life of St John the Baptist, many of the figures introduced being correct likenesses of some of the leading celebrities of the day. G. was the first artist who adopted correct principles of perspective, just gradations of shade and form, and dramatic art in grouping. G. died at the early age of 44, in the year 1495.

1857.

HELENA GHIKA, Princess Koltzoff-Massalsky, better known by her literary pseudonym of Dora D'Istria, is niece of Prince Alexander Ghika, ex-hospodar of Wallachia, and was born at Bucharest, 22d January 1829. Profoundly instructed in the classics under the care of George Pappadopoulos, she added to these, by frequent travels through Germany, France, and Italy, an extensive knowledge of modern languages and literature, and at the age of 15 commenced a translation of the Iliad into German,

GHIUSTENDI'L, a town of European Turkey, in the eyalet of Rumili, is situated on the slope of a hill about two miles distant from the right bank of the Struma or Kara Su, 192 miles in direct line

GHIZEH-GHIZNEVIDES.

west-north-west of Adrianople. It is surrounded by an old wall flanked with towers, is the see of a Greek bishop, and contains a bazaar and sulphurous baths. Pop. 10,000.

GHI'ZEH, or GIZEH (Coptic, Tpersion), a village in Egypt, close to the northern border of Middle Egypt, on the opposite side of the river and about three miles west-south-west from Cairo. In the immediate vicinity, the line of great pyramids commences. See PYRAMID. Here one may still witness the process of egg-hatching in ovens, a practice which has been continued from the time of the Pharaohs to the present day. G., formerly adorned with beautiful palaces and mosques, the pleasant retreat of the Cairo merchants, is now a mere village, and mounds of rubbish are almost the only indication that buildings of some pretension once existed here.

deran, he returned to his capital, where he died on the 29th of April 1030. At this time, the empire of Ghizni was at the summit of its glory, having in the short space of 69 years extended over 38 degrees of longitude and 20 of latitude. Mahmûd possessed some of the most exalted qualities that dignify and by his sanguinary zeal for the advancement of Islam. adorn human character, but they were much obscured He was succeeded by his younger son Mahomed, who in October of the same year was compelled to resign the sovereignty to his elder brother, Mussaûd I. the Seljuks (q. v.), who had taken possession of This prince was in 1037 signally defeated by Khorassan under Toghrul Beg and Tchegher Beg, the grandsons of Seljuk. Though an able and warlike prince, misfortunes crowded thickly round his declining years, and in 1041 he was put to death. During his reign, the Seljuks took possession of Balkh, Khorassan, Khaurezm, Herât, and Irak. GHIZNEVIDES, a celebrated dynasty, which, The sovereigns who in succession reigned in Ghizni in the height of its power, possessed an empire were Müdud (1041-1049), Mussaud II. (1049), Ali extending from the Tigris to the Ganges, and from (1049-1052), Abdurrashid (1052-1053), and Furruthe Sihon or Sir-Daria to the Indian Ocean. The khzaud (1053—1058), during whose reigns there is founder of the dynasty was Alepteghin, originally nothing worthy of relation, beyond the intestine a slave belonging to Abdulmelek, the Samant quarrels at Ghizni, and the encroachments of Ameer of Bokhara, who was appointed governor of the Seljuks on the west and north. The reign Khorassan; but on the death of his benefactor he of Furrukhzaud, however, shed a bright lustre rebelled, and proceeded at the head of an army to over the expiring glory of Ghizni, for the Seljak Ghizni, of which he took possession in 961, and for prince, Daoud, thinking to take advantage of the 15 years successfully withstood the whole power of dissensions at Ghizni, marched towards it; but the Samani (q. v.). On his death, Sebekteghin or on the way he was met by Nushtekein, one of Sabactagi was unanimously chosen as his successor. the best generals of the age, and signally defeated. He was distinguished for his prudence and valour, Taking advantage of this victory, Nashtekein and equally so for his humanity and justice. By marched into Khorassan, to recover that province, him the kingdom was extended from the Indus to and encountering Kellisaurek, a celebrated TürkKhorassan, and from the Gulf of Oman to the Amû- man chief, totally defeated him. On news of this Daria or Jihon; and in the latter province his son, second defeat, Alp-Arslan (q. v.) was sent by his Mahmûd, was appointed governor under the nominal uncle Toghrul Beg to stop the progress of the G.; suzerainty of the Samani. Sebekteghin died in 997, and in the battle which ensued, fortune changed and was succeeded by his younger son Ismail; but sides, and Nushtekein was totally defeated. Mahmûd the elder, hearing of his father's death, treaty of peace was then concluded. Furrukhzaud hastened to Ghizni, and assumed the reins of govern- was succeeded by Ibrahim (1058-1098), Mussaud ment in 998, with the title of Sultan. In the year III. (1098-1114), Arslan Shah (1114-1118), and following, he took complete possession of Khoras- Behram Shah (1118-1152). During the reign of san, and in 1001 commenced a series of destructive this last prince, the Ghuri, a tribe inhabiting the inroads into Hindûstân. Falling in with Jeypâl, the mountainous country of Ghûr, began to make prince of North-Western India, at Peshawur, Sultan inroads upon the territory of Ghizni, and growing Mahmûd, on the 8th of Mohurrim (November 26), bolder by success, attacked and took the capital defeated him with immense slaughter. In 1004, itself, driving Behram Shah across the Indus. But while on his second expedition to India, he was on the retreat of part of the Ghûri to their own recalled by the news that Eylek Khân of Khashgar, country, Behram Shah returned and retook his who in 999 had conquered the Samant and taken capital, making prisoner the Prince of Ghûr, Seyfudpossession of their territory, was ravaging Khorassan deen Souri, whom he put to death with the most and Balkh; on hearing which, Sultan Mahmûd, refined cruelty. On learning this, the brother of leaving his conquests, returned in an incredibly the unfortunate prince, Allah-ud-deen, hastened short time to Ghizni, and thence proceeding without from Ghûr, and having defeated Behram Shah, gave delay to Balkh, engaged in battle with the enemy, up Ghizni to be pillaged by his followers. Behram and completely defeated them. He then took pos- Shah, thus driven a second time across the Indus, session of the country between the Sihon and the desisted from all further attempts to regain his Jihon (ancient Transoxiana). In 1007 and 1009, ancestral dominions, and died in 1152. Sultan Mahmûd made his third and fourth expedi- Khosrû Shah succeeded him, and took up his resitions into Hindâstân, and each time carried off an dence in Lahore; but the many attempts which he immense booty in money, jewels, and slaves. On made to repossess himself of Ghizni and the surhis return to Ghizni, he made a liberal distribution rounding territory were unsuccessful. Khosrû Melek, from his treasures among the poor and the ministers the seventeenth and last monarch of the dynasty of of religion. About this time he reduced Ghûr, Ghizni, occupied himself in the first part of his Gherjistân, and Khaurezm, bestowing the latter reign (1160-1166) in extending and consolidating province upon Altun-Taush, one of his favourite his Indian possessions, but subsequently his whole generals. In 1024, he was engaged in his last energies were required to repel the attacks of Shahabexpedition against the Hindûs, the famous expedi-ud-deen Mahommed, Prince of Ghûr, who, having tion to Somnaut (q. v.), at the southern extremity conquered all the territory west of the Indus, now of Guzerat. Mahmûd here obtained an enormous booty. In 1027, he received from the Calif Ul Kader a ratification of all his conquests, together with numerous titles of honour, and in the two following years having conquered Irak, Tebriztân, and Mazan

A

His son

sought to drive the race of Sebekteghin from their last possession. In 1184, Lahore was all that remained to Khosra Melek, and the taking of that city by the Gharian prince in 1186 put an end to the power of the Ghiznevides.

GHIZNI-GHURI.

succeeded by his sons.

GIANIBELLI-GIANTS AND DWARFS.

But Behram Shah having Many Spanish ships also were either burned or sunk. The want of unity, however, among the citizens, ultimately rendered G.'s aid unavailing, and he was obliged to return to England. Here he was employed at the time of the threatened Spanish invasion in fortifying the coast-line, which he did in a very skilful manner. When the Armada appeared in the Channel, it was G. who proposed and carried out the plan of sending fire-ships into the midst of the enemy, and in this way greatly contributed to their defeat. After this he disappears from history, and all we know of him is that he died in London.

put to death one of the brothers, the others threw off their allegiance to the race of Sebekteghin, and hostilities ensued (see GHIZNEVIDES), in which the eldest brother, Seyf-ud-deen, was killed, and his brother Allah-ud-deen, surnamed Jehaun-souz (the Conflagrator), succeeded to the sovereignty. After subduing the sultan of Ghizni, Allah-ud-deen invaded Khorassan, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Sultan Sunjur the Seljuk. He was succeeded by his son Mahommed in 1160, who was assassinated at the end of the first year of his reign. Gheiatheddin Mahommed ascended the throne in 1161, and after a long and bloody contest with the Khaurezmians, succeeded in obtaining possession of Khorassan. During his reign the affairs of Ghizni were committed in charge to his brother, Shahabud-deen Mahommed, who, having subdued the Ghiznevide provinces west of the Indus, crossed that river and conquered successively the provinces of Multan (1176), Lahore (1186), and Ajmere (1190), defeating the rajah of Ajmere's army numbering 300,000 horse and 3000 elephants, and in the course of the next six years conquering Hindustan as far south as Nagpur, and westward to the Irrawady. It is from this epoch that the preponderance of Islam in Hindûstan is dated. Shahab-ud-deen succeeded to the throne in 1203, on the death of his brother (see GHIZNEVIDES). The house of Ghar had now reached its acme of power, their territory extending from the Caspian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, and from the Jihon to the Indian Ocean. Shahab-ud-deen, having invaded Khaurezm in 1204, was attacked by the sultan of that country, and completely routed. In the following year, he undertook an expedition into Kojud, on the south border of Cashmere, in order to reduce that rebellious province, in which undertaking he obtained complete success, but on his return was assassinated by one of the Fedayan, or followers of Hussun Sabah, in 1200. His nephew, Mahmûd, succeeded; but after a short reign of four years was assassin ated. After his death, some members of the family made feeble efforts to revive the grandeur of their ancestors, but as the sultans of Khaurezm had by this time subjugated the whole Persian empire, their attempts were fruitless.

GIANIBE'LLI, or GIAMBELLI, FEDERIGO, a famous military engineer, was born at Mantua about the year 1530. After serving for some time in Italy, he proceeded to Spain and offered his services to Philip II.; but having failed to obtain an audience of that monarch, and conceiving, moreover, that he had been personally slighted, he abruptly quitted Madrid, swearing, as the story goes, that the Spaniards would yet hear of him; and after a residence for some time at Antwerp, where he acquired a high reputation as a mechanist, passed over to England and entered the service of Queen Elizabeth, who granted him a pension. During the War of Independence in the Netherlands, Alexander, Duke of Parma, generalissimo of the Spanish forces, besieged Antwerp in 1585, whereupon Elizabeth commissioned G. to proceed to the assistance of the inhabitants. On his arrival, he found that the Spaniards had built a vast bridge across the Scheldt, interrupting all communication with the sea, by which alone the city could get provisions or help. Setting his wits to work, G. invented an infernal machine, which he launched against the bridge one stormy night. The effect was frightful. The whole Spanish army was roused by the noise, and the Scheldt was found to be quivering to its lowest depths. The obstructing bridge was blown into

the air, and no less than 800 men-among whom were some of the best Spanish officers-were killed.

GIANNO'NE, PIETRO, an eminent historian and lawyer, was born, 1676, at Ischitella, a village of Capitanata, in Naples. He early distinguished himself as an able and learned practitioner at the bar of Naples, and soon realised an easy independence, which enabled him to devote his time and energies to his favourite historical researches. In his beautiful villa, adjoining Naples, he laboured during the space of twenty years at his greatest historical work, which, in 1723, he published in four volumes, under the title of Storia Civile del Regno di Napoli. This valuable and comprehensive work, not only treats of the civil history of the kingdom, but also contains learned and critical dissertations on the laws, customs, and administrative vicissitudes of Naples from the most remote times, tracing the successive working of Greek, Roman, and Christian influences on the legislative and social institutions. Some severe strictures on the spirit of worldly aggrandisement, and progressive corruption of the doctrines and practices of primitive Christianity apparent in the modern Roman Catholic Church, so enraged the ecclesiastical party, that G. was universally denounced and anathematised from pulpit and altar. The ignorant fanaticism of the lower classes was aroused by the grossest calumnies levelled at the great writer, who was finally forced to yield before the tempest and take refuge at Vienna. The history was solemnly condemned as heretical and libellous by the pope, and was strictly prohibited. G. was granted a small pension by the Emperor Charles VI., under whose dominion Naples then was, and received, in some degree, compensation for his sufferings, in the admiration and sympathy of the enlightened spirits of his own land. In 1734, G. was deprived of his pension and returned to Venice, from whence he was expelled and forced to seek shelter in Geneva. There he composed his famous and bitterest diatribe, entitled Il Triregno, against the papal pretensions, and even proclaimed his adoption of the Calvinistic doctrines. Shortly after, an emissary from the court of Turin, fidence of G., induced him to enter the Sardinian having artfully ingratiated himself into the constates, where he was immediately arrested and conducted to the fortress of Turin a close prisoner. G. beguiled his tedious confinement with his chosen studies, and retracted his change of religious opinions, a step which in no way alleviated his persecution. He died a prisoner in the fortress, in 1748, after an incarceration of twelve years. His son, Giovanni, was assigned a liberal pension by the new king of Naples, Don Carlos of Bourbon, who thus sought to avert from his house the reproach which overwhelmed the persecutors and jailers of one of Italy's most illustrious citizens. La Storia Civile has passed through several editions, the most modern is that of Milan, 1823, in 13 vols., 8vo. See Corniani; Vita di P. Giannone da Leonardo Panzini; Storia della Letteratura Italiana da Maffei.

GIANTS AND DWARFS. A giant (from the

GIANTS AND DWARFS.