tains of Gilead, and after a circuitous course of about eighty miles, discharges itself into the Dead Sea. In summer it is almost dried up; but in the rainy season it becomes a powerful and impetuous stream, and has worn for itself a deep and precipitous channel. The Arnon anciently separated the Ammonites, and afterwards the Amorites, and subsequently the tribe of Reuben, from the Moabites, and formed the southern border of the land of Israel east of the Jordan (Num. xxi. 13; Josh. xiii. 16; Judg. xi. 12-28). In ARO'ER. 1. A city on the northern bank of the River Arnon. It was in the kingdom of Sihon, king of the Amorites (Josh. xii. 2). Its ruins, according to Burckhardt, still bear the name Ara'ir (Burckhardt, Trav. Syr.) 2. A city in the south of Judah to which David sent, for his friends, part of the spoil which he had taken from the Amalekites (1 Sam. xxx. 28). some ruins named Araarah Dr. Robinson thinks he discovered the site of the ancient Aroer, in the south of Judah (ii. 618). 3. A city in the tribe of Gad. In Josh. xiii. 25 it is said to be 'before Rabbah,' which would appear to indicate that it was not far from Rabbath of the children of Ammon (2 Sam. xxiv. 5). AR'PAD, a city, and perhaps a district, in Western Syria. It is always mentioned along with Hamath (2 Kings xviii. 34; xix. 13; Jer. xlix. 23); whence it has been concluded that it probably lay adjacent to it on the east, beyond the Orontes (Rosen. Geog. ii. 226). Both had anciently their own kings, but both were conquered by the Assyrians (Is. xxxvii. 12, 13). and the Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh, Of Divination by arrows was very common with the Chaldeans, Arabians, Scythians, etc. this practice we have an example in Nebuchadnezzar. Undetermined whether to attack the Jews or the Ammonites first, both of whose kings had laid schemes to shake off his yoke, he divined by arrows, consulted his teraphim, and looked into the livers of slain beasts to learn thence what route he should take (Ezek. xxi. 19-22). Jerome, in his commentary on this passage, says, "The manner of divination by arrows was this: they wrote on several arroWS the names of the cities against which they intended to make war, and then putting them in promiscuously all together into a quiver, they caused them to be drawn out in the manner of lots, and that city whose name was on the arrow first drawn was the first they assaulted.' On all important occasions-as of marriage, war, journeys, etc.-the Arabs divined by three arrows shaken together in a sack. If that inscribed Command me, Lord,' was first drawn, they proceeded in their purpose; if that inscribed Forbid me, Lord,' was drawn, they desisted at least for a whole year; if that on which nothing was written happened to be drawn, they drew over again until a decisive answer was obtained. ARROW, a missile weapon, slender, sharppointed, barbed, and shot from a bow in hunting and war. Bows and arrows are the earliest weapons that we find referred to or implied in the Scriptures. We may naturally suppose them to have been used by Nimrod, who is called a mighty hunter before the Lord' (Gen. x. 29), whether the reference be to what is ordinarily called hunting or to war. Hagar, when she with her son Ishmael was sent away by Abraham, 'cast the child under one of the shrubs in the wilderness of Beersheba, and sat her down over against him a good way off, as it were a bow-shot; and God was with the lad, and he grew and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an What tends quickly to pierce, pain, or destroy, archer' (xxi. 14-16, 20). We find Isaac saying is called arrows. The arrows of God are the to his son Esau, Take now thy weapons, thy terrible apprehensions or impressions of his quiver and thy bow, and go out to the field, and wrath, which wound, pain, and torment the contake me some venison' (xxvii. 3). In the bless-science (Job. vi. 4; Ps. xxxviii. 2). His variing which Jacob, when dying, pronounced on his son Joseph he says, "The archers have sorely grieved him, and shot at him, and hated him but his bow abode in strength, and the arms of his hands were made strong by the hands of the mighty God of Jacob' (xlix. 23, 24). This was no doubt said figuratively, but the employment of such a figure implies the commonness of the weapon, and of the practice referred to. These weapons were early used in war by the nations of antiquity. Jacob alludes to his use of them (xlviii. 22). Reference is made to them as in use by the Israelites (Josh. xxiv. 12). In 1 Chron. v. 18 it is said, 'The sons of Reuben, ous judgments-thunder, lightning, tempests, famine, disease, and other distresses-are called arrows (2 Sam. xxii. 15; Ezek. v. 16; Ps. xci. 5; Lam. iii. 12, 13; Hab. iii. 11). So also are his word and spiritual influence, which are sharp and powerful in piercing and turning the hearts of sinners (Ps. xlv. 5). The arrows of wicked men are their false, deceitful, abusive, slanderous words (Prov. xxv. 18; Jer. ix. 8; Ps. Ixiv. 3), and their means of doing hurt to others (Ps. xi. 2; lvii. 4; Prov. xxvi. 18), all which are very piercing, and painful to endure, and may do hurt of a sudden. The falling of the bows and arrows of Gog out of his hands imports his being quite dispirited, and incapa citated to use his arms against the Jews (Ezek. | John xv. 9). 4. Likeness in both quality and xxxix. 3). degree (John v. 23). ARTAXERXES, the name of two kings of Persia as given in the O. T. 1. Artaxerxes, who, at the instigation of the enemies of the Jews, issued a decree prohibiting them from going on with rebuilding Jerusalem (Ezra iv. 7-22). This was undoubtedly the impostor Smerdis, who gave himself out to be a son of Cyrus, and succeeded Cambyses on the throne of Persia; but the imposture being discovered, he was murdered by several of the nobles, after a reign of about eight months. [PERSIA.] 2. Artaxerxes, who was highly favourable to the Jews, and at the request, first of Ezra, authorised him to go up to Jerusalem, and conferred on him, and such of his brethren as chose to accompany him, many valuable privileges, with a view to the establishment of their religion in that city (Ezra vii. 1-26); and afterwards of Nehemiah, whom he appointed governor of the country (Neh. ii. 5-8; v. 14). He is called 'Artaxerxes, king of Babylon' (xiii. 6). This is generally understood to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, the son of Xerxes, whose reign extended to near forty years. [PERSIA.] ARVAD, a small island north of Tripolis, about a league from the shore, the Aradus of the Greeks and Romans, and called by the Turks Ruad. It is supposed to have been the seat of the ancient Arvadites mentioned in Gen x. 18; but they were not confined to the island; the country on the continent as far as Gebal also belonged to them. To the eye the island seems not above two or three furlongs in length. The ancient inhabitants were famous as sailors; they seem also to have served Tyre as soldiers (Ezek. xxvii. 11; Maundrell, 19). In the present day it contains about 2000 inhabitants, who dwell in very good, and to appearance very ancient houses. They are nearly all sailors or shipwrights. Several large castles in good repair protect the island from invasion or insult. They are probably of Saracenic origin; but some of them were, no doubt, constructed by the Crusaders, and considerable portions of the very ancient walls remain, and by the size of the stones remind one of Baal-bec. The walls must originally have been very lofty, as there is one portion still standing which is at least forty feet high. It is evident they must have been prodigiously strong. As nothing grows on the island, the inhabitants depend entirely upon the fruits of commerce and the riches of the sea for their subsistence. Seen from the sea, in the gray twilight of evening, the high castles of Ruad have a venerable appearance, and, like most other towns in the East, promise far more to the eye of the traveller than he finds a reality on a closer inspection (Amer. Miss. Her., 1847, p. 98). AS imports-1. Likeness only in appearance (Matt. xxvi. 55). 2. Sameness (John i. 14; Heb. xii. 7). 3. Likeness in reality or quality, but not in degree; thus saints are united to one another as really as Christ is to the Father; are perfect as God is perfect, righteous as Christ, and loved of him as he is loved of God John xvii. 22; Matt. v. 48; 1 John iii. 7; A'SAPH was of the tribe of Levi, and was the chief of the singers appointed by David for the service of the tabernacle (1 Chron. vi. 31, 32, 38, 39). His sons, and those of Heman and Jeduthan, were also set apart to the same service, to 'prophesy with harps, with psalteries, and with cymbals' (1 Chron. xxv. 1-6), where the word to prophesy has obviously no reference to foretelling future events, but simply to their conducting the music of the house of God. Even after the return of the Jews from Babylon the descendants of Asaph were employed in the musical services of the temple (Ezra iii. 10; Neh. vii. 44; xi. 22). The 50th, 73d, and ten following psalms, are ascribed to Asaph; but it is certain they could not be all composed by him, for several of them plainly refer to later times. [PSALMS.] ASH. [PINE-TREE.] ASH'DOD, or AZOʻTUS, as it was called by the Greeks and Romans, was situated on the south-east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and was anciently one of the cities of the five lords of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3). In the division of Canaan by Joshua it was allotted to the tribe of Judah (xv. 47); but if it was ever conquered by the Israelites, the Philistines must have regained possession of it; for in the days of Eli they brought the ark of God, which they had taken in war from the Israelites, to Ashdod, and placed it in the temple of their god Dagon, as a trophy of their victory; but Dagon fell to the earth before the ark, and was broken in pieces (1 Sam. iv. v. 1-4). Uzziah, king of Judah, having successfully warred against the Philistines, broke down the walls of Ashdod, and of others of their cities (2 Chron. xxvi. 6, 7). Tartan, the Assyrian general, fought against it, and took it (Is. xx. 1). Heavy judgments are pronounced upon it and other cities of the Philistines (Jer. xxv. 17, 20; Amos i. 6-8; Zeph. ii. 4-7; Zach. ix. 5-7). After the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, some of them 'married wives of Ashdod, of Ammon, and of Moab; and their children spoke half in the speech of Ashdod, and could not speak in the Jews' language, but according to the language of each people' (Neh. xiii. 23, 24); a circumstance worthy of notice, as shewing that the languages of the Philistines, the Ammonites, and the Moabites were different from that of the Jews, at least after their return from Babylon. Whether any of them were dialects of the Aramaan we do not know. Judas Maccabæus pulled down the altars of the Philistines in Ashdod, and burned their carved images with fire;' and his brother Jonathan afterwards 'set it on fire, and the cities round about it, and took their spoils; and the temple of Dagon, with them that were fled into it, he burned with fire' (1 Macc. v. 68; x. 84; xi. 4). was, however, built again. Here Philip the Evangelist early preached the gospel. present Ashdod is a miserable village called Esdud, picturesquely situated on a small eminence surrounded by olive grounds and orchards. There are few or no vestiges of its former It At splendour. The sea is about two miles distant, ASH'TAROTH, ASHTORETH, a goddess of the same as Ashtaroth-Karnaim, it existed so early as the days of Abraham. Here Chedorlaomer and the kings that were with him smote the Rephaims,' who were of the race of the giants (Gen. xiv. 5). Here, at a later period, reigned Og, the king of Bashan, who remained of the remnant of the giants' (Josh. xiii. 12). It was included in the territory of the half-tribe of Manasseh (xiii. 31), and was given to the Levites (1 Chron. vi. 71). The site of Ashtaroth was supposed to be discovered a few years ago in Tel 'Ashtereh, a large mound, partly natural partly artificial, in the midst of a vast plain east of the Jordan. "The chief argument,' says Porter, 'for the identity of the two places is the apparent resemblance of the names; but the resemblance is only apparent. The words are radically different. The Arabic Ash'areh bears no analogy to the Hebrew Ashposition except a very confused notice by EuseThere is nothing to fix its bius' (Porter, Handbook). .עשתרות,taroth moderns divide the world; but this use of the Romans, who had been the benefactors of his abomination of the children of Ammon' (1 Kings xi. 5, 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 13). These altars ap-queathed the whole of his dominions to the pear to have subsisted up to the days of Josiah, king of Judah; and the worship of Ashtaroth, and other forms of idolatry, to have been carried to a terrible height, as is evident from the great efforts which he made to root them out (2 Kings xxiii. 4-20, 24). It is probable, how-quired possession was placed under a prætor, ever, the reform by Josiah was attended with mark its boundaries and extent, as some changes and ultimately a proconsul. It is difficult to only partial, or at least only temporary, success. There is little doubt it was to Ashtoreth that time (Conybeare, i. 256). Proconsular Asia inof these appear to have been made from time to the remnant of the Jews, both men and women, cluded the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, who had taken refuge in Egypt after the death and Caria; but it is plain Luke employs the of Gedaliah, referred under the name of 'the word Asia in a more restricted sense, for he Queen of Heaven,' to whom they burnt incense and poured out drink-offerings,' and whom they tinct from Asia (Acts ii. 9, 10; xvi. 6-8). John, names Phrygia, and perhaps also Mysia, as disrepresent as having been the object of the wor- in the Book of Revelation, also uses the word ship of their fathers, their kings, and their in a more restricted sense. He was commanded princes, in the cities of Judah and in the streets to send unto the seven churches which are in of Jerusalem' (Jer. xliv. 15-25). rally understood that very impure and lascivious It is genepractices were connected with the worship of Ashtoreth, which it is likely commended it all the more to both Jews and heathens. ASH'TAROTH, ASTAROTH, a city of Bashan, east of the Jordan (Josh. xii. 4; Deut. i. 4), so called, probably, from its being a seat of the worship of Ashtaroth. If it was and Thyatira, and Sardis, and Philadelphia, and Asia, unto Ephesus, and Smyrna, and Pergamos, Laodicea.' Now, we have ground to suppose that by the end of the 1st century there were many more churches than seven in the four provinces above mentioned; and it is also worthy of remark that the whole of these churches were in the province of Lydia, unless it was Pergamos. We are accordingly disposed to think that the word is also to be understood the world-some kinds of it in a soft and in this restricted sense in Acts xix. 10, 22, 26, even liquid state, like tar. It abounded in the 27, 31; xx. 4, 16, 18 (comp. with xxi. 29; country of Babylon, and accordingly it was used Eph. vi. 21, 22; 2 Tim. iv. 12); 1 Cor. xvi. 19; instead of lime or other cement in building the 2 Cor. i. 8 (comp. with 1 Cor. xv. 32); 2 Tim. tower of Babel: "They had brick for stone, and i. 15-18. But in Acts xxvii. 2 the word has asphaltum (E. T., slime) had they for mortar' obviously a more extended sense, and perhaps (Gen. xi. 3). The inhabitants of Babylon have also in vi. 9 and 1 Pet. i. 1. In the last-men- in all ages made use of asphaltum for this purtioned passage it probably means Proconsular pose. Herodotus and other ancient authors Asia in the ordinary sense of the word. affirm that the walls of Babylon were cemented with it. ASKELON, one of the cities of the five lords of the Philistines, situated on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and the only one of them that was on the sea-coast. It was allotted to the tribe of Judah, which took it; but the Philistines afterward subdued the children of Israel, and recovered it, and it became the scene of one of the exploits of Samson (Judg. i. 18; xiii. 1; xiv. 19). Herod, falsely called the Great, was born at Askelon; and though it was not in his kingdom, he adorned it with fountains, baths, and colonnades. During the Crusades it was a place of considerable importance. The old city is little better than a heap of ruins. Its situation is described as strong. The thick walls, flanked with towers, were built on a ridge of rock that encircles the town, and terminates at each end in the sea. The ground within sinks in the manner of an amphitheatre (Robinson, Res. ii. 369). Modern Askelon is only a small village situated to the north of the site of the old city, which is now entirely uninhabited. It retains the ancient name Askelon. ASNAPPER, who brought over the colonists and set them in the cities of Samaria, is called 'the great and noble Asnapper' (Ezra iv. 10). But whether this was a name of one of the kings of Assyria (Shalmanezer or Esarhaddon for example, 2 Kings xvii. 3, 6, 24; Ezra iv. 2), or one of his principal officers who conducted them to Samaria and settled them therein, we have not the means of determining. ASP, Heb. E, Pethan, the meaning of which is not certain. Gesenius says, 'a viper, an asp' (697). Our translators render it an asp in Deut. xxxii. 33; Job xx. 14, 16; and Is. xi. 8; but in Ps. lviii. 4, xci. 13, an adder. Uncertain in regard to its meaning, where they place adder in the text they put asp in the margin. In Rom. iii. 13, Paul, quoting Ps. cxl. 3, employs the Greek word doris, but that is as the trans lation of a different Hebrew word. [ADDER.] Naturalists are not agreed as to the species of serpent called an asp. ASPHALTUM, or Jewish bitumen, is a species (for there are various species) of bitumen, black, ponderous, solid, shining, and which breaks readily with a vitreous fracture. It is found on the waters of the Lake Asphaltites (from which it takes its name) or the Dead Sea, where once stood the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. When Chedorlaomer and the kings who were confederated with him invaded the country 'the vale of Siddim was full of asphaltum pits, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrha fled and fell there' (Gen xiv. 10). In the E. T. it is improperly rendered slime pits. Asphaltum, or bitumen, is found in various other parts of made use of asphaltum for pitching and making The Egyptians, according to Pliny, water-tight the small boats of plaited papyrusreed which are commonly used on the Nile. Moses. When his mother could not longer hide Of this we have an example in the history of him, she took for him an ark of bulrushes, and daubed it with asphaltum (E. T., slime) and with pitch, and put the child therein, and she laid it in the flags by the river's brink' (Exod. ii. 3; Rosen. Min. 12). These are the only passages in which the word signifying asphaltum occurs in the O. T. The words rendered pitch in Gen. vi. 14; Exod. ii. 3; and Is. xxxiv. 9, are different. In ASS, an animal so well known that it stands in no need of description. Buffon says it apancient times it was held in much higher pears to have come originally from Arabia. esteem than it is with us; and there can be no doubt that the race was much superior to the breed which we possess. With us asses are despised; they are chiefly in the hands of the poor, are generally ill treated, and probably often stinted in their food-circumstances which have doubtless contributed to their degeneracy. Besides, according to Buffon, it is a known fact, that they are weak and small in proportion to the coldness of the climate (Buffon, Nat. Hist. iii. 417). Hence, probably, in part, the degeneracy of the race in this country. In Spain the breed of asses has, by care and attention, been greatly improved, insomuch that they are strong, elegant, stately animals, often fifteen hands high. Egypt and Arabia likewise excel in large and handsome asses, which often fetch attitudes and movements manifest a degree of a higher price than the horse, and which in their noble gracefulness unknown even in those in Spain (Edin. Encyc., art. Mazology,' xiii. 469). of the great men of the East (Gen. xii. 16; Anciently asses constituted part of the wealth XXX. 43; Job. i. 3). It was early the chief animal which was used in riding. We read of Abraham saddling his ass when he set out on his journey to Mount Moriah to sacrifice Isaac his son (xxii. 3, 5). Balaam, who dwelt in Mesopotamia, and was, no doubt, reckoned a great man, when he accompanied the princes of Moab rode upon an ass (Num. xxii. 21-33). Deborah, addressing the governors of Israel, says, 'Speak, ye that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judgment and walk by the way' (Judg. v. 10). Achsah, the daughter of Caleb, one of the chief men of the Israelitish nation, was riding on an ass when she met her father (i. 14); for it appears that not only men but women of station were accustomed to ride on asses (1 Sam. xxv. 20, 23; 2 Kings iv. 8, 22, 24). The ass was also early employed as a beast of burden. The first mention which we have of it as used for this purpose is when Jacob sent his | Ishmael: 'He will be a wild-ass man,' i.e., free, sons down to Egypt to buy corn (Gen. xlii. 26); independent, swift in flight, and an inhabitant and though horses were then common in Egypt, of the desert. It also furnishes us with a strikyet Joseph did not employ them in sending a ing illustration of the miserable condition to present to his father. To his father he sent which Nebuchadnezzar was reduced when, as a after this manner, ten asses laden with the good punishment of his pride, 'he was deposed from things of Egypt; and ten she-asses laden with his kingly throne, and was driven from the sons corn, and bread, and meat for his father by the of men, and his dwelling was with the wild way' (xlv. 23). To the ass, as a beast of asses' (Dan. v. 20, 21). It also gives intensity to burden, the aged patriarch, when dying, makes the description which Isaiah gives of the desolathe following reference: 'Issachar is a strong ass tion which should overtake his country (xxxii. couching down between two burdens' (xlix. 14). 13, 14): Upon the land of my people shall Buffon says that, in proportion to his size, the come up thorns and briars; yea, upon all the ass can carry more weight than any other houses of joy in the joyous city; because the animal (iii. 422). palaces shall be forsaken; the multitude of the city shall be left; the forts and towers shall be dens for ever, a joy of wild asses,'-animals which flee from the abodes of men, and delight in the wilderness. As wild asses can subsist on coarse and scanty herbage, and can find food where other animals would perish, this gives peculiar force to Jeremiah's description of a dearth in the land of Judah: "The wild asses did stand in the high places; they snuffed up the wind like dragons; their eyes did fail because there was no grass' (xiv. 6). To show how much more asses were in use among the Jews than other animals commonly employed for riding on or as beasts of burden, it is worthy of notice, that on their return from the Babylonish captivity, they had 6720 asses, while they had only 736 horses, 435 camels, and 245 mules (Ezra ii. 66, 67). Though among the Jews the grinding of corn was commonly performed by the females of the family, who made use of hand-mills for this purpose, yet they also used mill-stones of a larger size than could well be turned by women, and they employed an ass to turn them. Hence the upper mill-stone was called púλos Övikos, the ass mill-stone (Matt. xviii. 6; Robinson, Gr. Lex. 529). Such mill-stones were in use by both the Greeks and Romans (Parkhurst, Gr. Lex. 474). Wild asses are not unfrequently mentioned in Scripture. There are no sufficient reasons for considering them a distinct species from the domestic ass. They are probably either the animal in its original state of freedom, or they have sprung from domestic asses which had escaped from their bondage, and asserted their liberty (Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, v. 295). Though they differ somewhat in their external characters, and still more in their dispositions and habits, yet their differences are probably merely the result of the different circumstances in which they are placed. The wild ass stands higher on its limbs than the domestic ass, its legs are more slender in proportion, and it is far superior in point of beauty and vivacity (Edin. Encyc., art. 'Mazology,' xiii. 468). They are remarkable for their fleetness (Ker Porter, Travels, i. 459). When they see a man they give a loud cry, fling up their heels, stop until he approaches them, and then dart away like an arrow shot from a bow (Buffon, Nat. Hist. iii. 419). They live in small herds, are timid and vigilant, are regularly conducted by a leader, and possess the senses of smelling and hearing in an eminent degree. Their favourite food consists of the wild plants of the desert, and of bitter lactescent herbs. It is worthy of notice that they prefer brackish to sweet water (Edin. Encyc., art. Mazology,' xiii. 468). There is a fine description of the wild ass in Job xxxix. 5-8: 'Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city.' This picture of the wild ass gives us some idea of the force of the appellation which is applied to The ass is a very lascivious animal. When under the influence of sexual desire, he is so furious that nothing can restrain him. It rises to a degree of madness. The female is equally lascivious as the male, and in order to render her capable of conception it is said to be often necessary to repress her ardour with blows (Buffon, Nat. Hist. iii. 413, 415). This illustrates the comparison which Jeremiah makes between the wild ass and the Israelitish nation, on account of their propensity to idolatry, a sin which is often exposed by the prophets under the name of whoredom: A wild ass used to the wilderness, that snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure; in her occasion who can turn her away all they that seek her will not weary themselves; in her month they shall find her' (ii. 24). Mules, which are a breed between the horse and the ass, are also repeatedly mentioned in the O. T. [MULE.] ASSA'RION, a brass coin, equal to one-tenth of the drachma or denarius (Robinson, Gr. Lex. 109). It was of about the value of three farthings of our money. Anciently it had on one side the figure of Janus, but latterly the head of Cæsar; and on the reverse the stern of a ship (Jahn, Bib. Antiq. 58, 59). It is rendered in our translation a farthing (Matt. x. 29; Luke xii. 6); but the word ought to have been transferred, not translated. We have no coin corresponding to it in either form or value, and to introduce into a translation modern national coins conveys very false ideas of those of the ancients. Every country, too, would introduce its own coins. England would have its halfpenny, while America would have her cents; and neither of them would express exactly the value of the ancient coin. There is a smaller coin mentioned in the N. T., the Kodρávrηs, Lat. quadrans. It was a small brass coin, in value the fourth part of an assarion (Robinson, Gr. Lex. 449); but our |