priest; a man who had been bred to labour in the field, and was taken directly from the plough; who knew nothing of the duties of his office, and only served to bring it into contempt. They endeavoured to excite dissensions among the noblemen, and by these means to find opportunities for perpetrating new crimes. When the people were at last excited by the persuasions of Ananus, the oldest of the high priests, to rise against these outlaws, they withdrew to the temple, and made it the citadel and refuge of their tyranny. Ananus, Gorion the son of Joseph, Simon the son of Gamaliel, and some others of the chief priests, at length succeeded in persuading the people to take arms against their seditious countrymen, who gave themselves the denomination of Zealots. But while Ananus was arranging his forces the Zealots rushed out of the temple, and massacred all who came in their way. The army of Ananus, though then but scantily supplied with arms, maintained their ground, and an obstinate battle was fought, in which many were killed and wounded on both sides. Such conflicts were afterwards frequent, and the Zealots were generally victorious; till at last, on one occasion, Ananus with his party pressed on so closely after the retreating Zealots, that he rushed with them into the temple; when they withdrew to the inner court and closed the gates, and Ananus, out of reverence for the sacred place, declined to pursue his advantage any further. He however left a garrison of six thousand men in the outer court, who were relieved by others at regular intervals.* John the Gischalite professedly espoused the cause of Ananus, but held a secret correspondence with the Zealots; and when his treachery was suspected, he asserted his fidelity with a solemn oath, and so entirely freed himself from all suspicion, that he was sent to the Zealots to enter into negotiations for peace. He took this opportunity to advise the Zealots to call the Idumeans to their aid, two thousand of whom soon after appeared before Jerusalem. Ananus shut the gates against them, and in vain endeavoured by the most earnest entreaties to dissuade them from their purpose. They remained all night before the city, exposed to the fury of a violent storm of rain and thunder. The Zealots, taking advantage of the noise occasioned by the wind, rain, and thunder, sawed off the bars which confined the gates of the temple, without being heard by the garrison in the outer court, went unperceived to the gates of the city, which they opened, and conducted the Idumeans to the temple, where their comrades had already issued from the inner court to meet them. They now with their united strength fell upon the garrison in the outer court, who at first defended themselves with great bravery; but as soon as they perceived that the Idumeans were among them, they threw down their swords, and raised a cry of despair. By this the inhabitants of the city were awakened; but not daring to go to the aid of the garrison, they, particularly the women, set up another shriek of terror. Meanwhile the garrison of the outer court was cut to pieces, and many precipitated themselves from the porticoes of the temple into the city. The IdumeJewish War, iv. 3. 6-12.

ans then rushed into the city, and cut down all whom they met; but sought principally for the chief priests, among whom Ananus was slain. Josephus intimates that Ananus would have restored peace with the Romans, had his life been spared; since he had already done much towards suppressing the haughty spirit of the seditious. The Idumeans and Zealots massacred great numbers of the people, and put the more distinguished citizens in prison, where they attempted to compel them to join their party, by severe treatment and scourging; and finally put those to death who firmly refused to comply with their demands. They seized them by day, and murdered them in the night; and then threw out their dead bodies, to make room for other prisoners. They accused the wealthy Zacharias, the son of Barach, before seventy judges whom they called together,of a design to betray the city into the hands of Vespasian; and when he began to make his defence, and to show the injustice of the accusation, they made such a tumult that his voice could not be heard. Notwithstanding this, the judges acquitted him; and for this act of justice they were immediately beaten from their seats, and Zacharias was murdered by two Zealots in the midst of the temple. When the Idumeans witnessed the violence of the Zealots, and heard of all the barbarous crimes of which they had been guilty, they released the two thousand prisoners whom they had taken, and went home mortified and disgusted by the conduct of their allies. The Zealots, however, did not cease to commit murder, under pretence of punishing treason.*

Many now sought refuge with the Romans, who looked on with pleasure, and saw their enemies destroying one another. All the avenues from the city were indeed strongly guarded, and those who were detected in their flight were put to death; but money could open for any one a way of escape, and it was those only who were unable or unwilling to bribe the guards, that were delivered up and executed as traitors. The dead bodies of such as had fallen by the hand of the executioner, lay unburied in the streets, because no one ventured to bury them, lest he should himself be regarded and treated as a traitor.

All human laws were trampled under foot, the laws of God were despised, the prophets were ridiculed as fanatics and jugglers, although the Zealots themselves were now fulfilling their prophecies; for, (as Josephus observes,) "they had foretold that the city should be destroyed and the temple burnt, when a revolt should break out, and the temple should be profaned by the citizens themselves; which predictions the Zealots were now accomplishing."t

John the Gischalite, a brave and sagacious, but unprincipled man, now began to assume absolute authority, and endeavoured to make himself sole master of the city; but his pretensions were strongly opposed. The citizens were consequently divided into two factions, who were frequently engaged in bloody conflicts. The robbers and Sicarii meanwhile had increased

• Jewish War, iv. 3. 13; 6.1.

↑ Jewish War, iv. 6. 3. Dan. ix. 27. Mal. iii. 2. 5. 19. Matt. xxv. 15.

throughout the country in numbers and audacity. The robbers of Masada, who had hitherto plundered only to supply themselves with provisions, now undertook more extensive depredations. On the feast of the passover they attacked the town of Engaddi, drove out the inhabitants, murdered more than seven hundred women and children, pillaged the town, and brought their booty to Masada. In a short time they devastated that whole region; while others did the same in other places, and then fled with their booty to the deserts.*

CXL. CONQUEST OF PEREA, 68 A. C.

When Vespasian learned the miserable condition of Jerusalem from the fugitives who were continually flocking to his camp, he pitied the distresses of the people, and put his army in motion to relieve the city. But as it was necessary to secure the country in his rear, he marched first to Gadara, whither he had been invited by the principal citizens. When the rebels heard that the Romans were approaching, they put to death those who had invited them, and fled. The inhabitants opened their gates to Vespasian, and as a proof of their fidelity, demolished the walls of the city, without waiting for the Romans to require it.

Vespasian immediately sent Placidus in pursuit of the fugitives, with five hundred horse and three hundred foot. The Jews fled before the Romans, and took refuge in the village of Bethennabris, where they armed the youth of the place, and marched out to meet their pursuers. The Romans at first gave way in order to draw the Jews further from the walls; and then surrounding them, they put great numbers to the sword. The Jews at length broke through the ranks of their enemies and escaped to the town; but Placidus immediately took the place by assault, cut down all who offered resistance, plundered the houses, and laid them in ashes. The Jews then fled towards Jericho, and were pursued by the Romans. Placidus attacked them a second time on the banks of the Jordan, when many were slain or driven into the river. The number of those who were drowned could not be estimated, but the Jordan and the Dead Sea were filled with their bodies: thirteen thousand were left dead on the field, twenty-two hundred were taken prisoners; and a rich booty of asses, sheep, camels, and oxen, fell into the hands of the Romans. Placidus then took Abila, Julias, Bezemoth, and all the other towns as far as the Dead Sea; and the rebels who had embarked on the sea were slain in their boats by the Roman soldiers. Upon this, all Perea as far as Macherus, surrendered to the Romans.‡

CXLI. CONQUEST OF JUDEA AND IDUMEA, 69 A. C.

When Vespasian received intelligence that Vindex had revolted from Nero in Gaul, he endeavoured to put an end to the Jewish war before the Roman empire should become distracted by civil commotions. During the winter he rebuilt

• Jewish War, iv. 7. 2. Jewish War, iv. 7. 3. Jewish War, iv. 7. 4-6.

many of the places which had been destroyed, and for their security left garrisons in the cities, under the command of centurions, and in the villages, under the command of decurions. In the spring, he subdued Antipatris and Thamnitis; but Lydda and Jamnia surrendered without resistance. He cut off the communication between Emmaus and Jerusalem by a line of intrenchments, in which he left one legion; and with the remainder of his army he laid waste the territory of Bethleptephon. He then fortified some castles on the borders of Idumea, and took Betharis and Caphartoba, two villages in the heart of the country, where he put more than ten thousand men to the sword, and made more than one thousand prisoners. He here left a strong garrison, which made hostile excursions into the mountains. He then returned to Emmaus, and marched through Samaria by the way of Neapolis or Mabortha to Corea, where he encamped on the second day of the month Desins, or June, and two days after proceeded to Jericho, where he was joined by Trajan with the troops from Perea. The inhabitants of Jericho had mostly fled to the mountains which lie between that city and Jerusalem; but those who remained were all put to the sword.*

Several fortifications were now erected in the neighourhood of Jericho and Abida, and provided with garrisons, in order to cut off all communication with Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Vespasian sent a body of troops to Gerasa under the command of Lucius Annius, who took the city by assault, slew about one thousand young men, took the remainder prisoners with the women, children, and aged people, gave the city up to pillage, and laid it in ashes. In the same manner he destroyed all the cities in that vicinity. The whole region about Jerusalem was now in the hands of the Romans, so that those in the country who favoured the Jews could not join them in the city, while those in the city who favoured the Romans were prevented by the Zealots from joining their party.†

When Vespasian arrived at Cæsarea, and was about to lead his whole army against Jerusalem, he received intelligence that Nero, detested and forsaken by all his subjects, had killed himself, and that Galba had gone from Spain to Rome, and had been saluted as emperor. He therefore sent his son Titus to Galba. in company with king Agrippa. But when Titus heard in Achaia that Galba had been murdered after a reign of seven months and seven days, and that Otho had been called to the imperial throne; he left Agrippa to pursue his journey, and returned himself to his father in Palestine. Vespasian was induced, by these revolutions, to defer the siege of Jerusalem for a while; and he waited at Cæsarea for further intelligence.‡

CXLII. CONDITION OF THE JEWS, 69 A. C.

While the rebels were left undisturbed by the Romans, a new dissension broke out among themselves. Simon of Gerasa, the son of Giora,

a less subtle but more daring man than John the Gischalite, now attempted to place himself at the head of the rebels. After his expulsion from the district of Acrabatene by Ananus, which has already been noticed, he joined the robbers at Masada, and gained their confidence by his daring depredations. After the death of Ananus he withdrew to the mountains, and soon drew around him a numerous party by promising freedom to the slaves, and great rewards to the free men, who would join him.*

He now begun to plunder the villages on the mountains, and soon extended his depredations to the plains. In a short time he became formidable to the cities, and was then joined by some of the nobles. He now carried his robberies into Idumea, fortified the village of Nain, deposited his booty in the caves of the vale of Pharan, and left there a large number of his adherents as a garrison. The Zealots took the field against him, but were overpowered and driven back to Jerusalem. In Idumea he fought with twenty thousand men against twenty-five thousand Idumeans for a whole day without gaining a decisive victory. Soon after, he encamped at Thecoa with forty thousand men, when Idumea fell into his power by treachery, and he desolated the whole country with fire and sword. The Zealots did not venture again to take the field against him, and they were obliged to restore to him his wife and a great number of his adherents who had fallen into their power by a stratagem ; for the irritated Simon led his army to Jerusalem, put to death many who came out of the city, cut off the hands of others, and sent them back with the threat that he would break through the walls and treat all the Jews in the same manner, unless they sent him back his wife. The intimidated Zealots were accordingly compelled to submit.+ Simon returned to Idumea and resumed his robberies; and when the Idumeans attempted to escape to Jerusalem, he pursued them to the walls, surrounded the city, and slew all who were going out to their fields or returning from them. The condition of those within the city was no better than that of those without; every species of enormity was practised by the Zealots, especially by John the Gischalite and his Galileans. To plunder and murder the rich, and ravish the women, was mere pastime to these shameless wretches; they polluted themselves by nameless obscenities, and imitated the dress and ornaments and wantonness of females. Josephus says, "the whole city was one great brothel, a horrid den of robbers, and a hateful cave of murderers."+

At last an army, to which the Idumeans attached themselves, was raised against John, and a bloody battle was fought in the city. Many of the Zealots fell, and the remainder took refuge in the palace which had been built by Grapte, a relative of king Izates, whence they were soon expelled and driven into the temple. The Idumeans now plundered the palace which John the Gischalite had made his place of residence, and in which he had deposited his trea

Jewish War, iv. 9. 3. Tacitus, Hist. v. 12. + Jewish War, iv. 9. 4-8.

Jewish War, iv. 9. 10.

sures.

The Zealots, who were dispersed in different parts of the city, collected for the aid of their comrades in the temple; and John made preparations for an assault on the Idumeans and the people. In this distress the people opened their gates to Simon, who indeed kept John closely besieged in the temple, but soon proved himself as tyrannical a master as his rival. He could gain little advantage against the temple, where the Zealots were favoured by the height of the place; and they now built for their greater security four additional towers, and provided them with engines for throwing stones and darts. Thus there were continual hostilities among the Jews themselves in the city.*

CXLIII. VESPASIAN ELECTED EMPEROR,
69 A. C.

month Desius or June, marched to the districts Vespasian left Cæsarea on the fifth day of the the towns of Ephraim and Bethel, and provided of Gophnitis and Acrabatene, took possession of them with garrisons. He then proceeded towards Jerusalem to learn the condition of the capital.

Celearis, in the meantime, had laid waste Upper Armenia, as far as Herodium, Masada, and Macherus, which still remained in the hands of the robbers.t

After all the country around Jerusalem had been devastated, Vespasian returned to Cæsarea, and there received intelligence that the German legions had raised Vitellius to the imperial throne. Vespasian and his whole army were highly displeased with this election. The soldiers immediately held a council, and declared Vespasian emperor of Rome. They entreated him to sustain the sinking glory of the empire; they would listen to no excuse, and even threatened him with death if he refused to accept their proffers.

It was Vespasian's first care to secure Egypt, and he immediately wrote to Tiberius Alexander at Alexandria, and confirmed him in his office. received the letter of Vespasian as from their The two legions which were stationed there emperor. The news was rapidly spread; and many ambassadors came to Berytus, whither Vespasian had retired, to offer him their congratulations. Here he released Flavius Josephus from his chains, and ever after treated him with great respect.§

When Vespasian had marched from Berytus to Antioch, he sent Mucianus with an army to Italy by land, because the lateness of the season made sailing unsafe, and proceeded himself to Alexandria. Soon after, Cæcinus, who had revolted from Vitellius, arrived with the intelligence that the army of Vitellius had been entirely defeated at Cremona by Primus.

the capitol at Rome for Vespasian; but he was In the meantime, Sabinius took possession of overpowered, and slain by the army of Vitellius.

Jewish War, iv. 9. 11, 12. + Jewish War, iv. 9. 9. Jewish War, iv 10. 1-4. Dion Cassius, lxv. § Jewish War, iv. 10. 6. 7. 74-81. Dion Cassius, lxvi.

73.

Jewish War, iv. 11. 1-3.

Compare Tacitus, Hist. ii.

Compare Tacitus. Hist. ii Dion Cassius, lxiv. lxv.

The next day, Antonius entered Rome with his troops; and, though he was engaged in three different conflicts with the soldiers of Vitellius, he at length succeeded in routing them. Vitellius came out of his palace drunk; when he was insulted by the people, dragged through the streets, and put to death, after he had reigned eight months and five days. On the following day, Mucianus arrived with his forces at Rome; when the soldiers of Antonius, who were still plundering the houses of the citizens, were reduced to order, and Vespasian was universally acknowledged as emperor.*

This pleasing intelligence was brought to Vespasian at Alexandria. He immediately sent his son Titus to Judea, and set sail himself for Rome in the midst of winter.†

CXLIV. THREE PARTIES AT JERUSALEM, 70 A. C.

While Titus was at Alexandria, a third party had arisen at Jerusalem. Eleazar, the son of Simon, who had first separated the Zealots from the people and induced them to retire to the temple, pretended to be displeased with the cruel conduct of John, though he was in reality influenced by no better motive than jealousy of his power. He attached some of the more powerful men and a part of the Zealots to his interests, and took possession of the inner temple; but, on account of the small number of his adherents, remained quiet till John began to assault him. John could make little use of his military engines in these assaults, because the part of the temple which Eleazar occupied was higher than that which he possessed, yet many were slain, even at the altars; for Eleazar admitted all into the temple who wished to offer sacrifices. John was also obliged to maintain a constant conflict with Simon, the son of Giora, who had the upper city and a large part of the lower in his possession; and, when he directed his arms for a short time against Eleazar he was compelled to give way before Simon. Thus John, who maintained himself by plundering the people, was obliged to carry on a continual twofold war; the one against Eleazar, who lived on the stores of the temple, and the other against Simon, who was so liberally supported by the people that his men were often found intoxicated. John made frequent sallies against Simon, and set fire to the streets as far as he was able to penetrate; and Simon, in his turn, when he repelled the attacks of John, burnt the houses which stood in his way. Thus all the streets in the neighbourhood of the temple were laid waste, and great quantities of provisions were destroyed in the flames.

From this state of wretchedness there was no

way of escape; for all the avenues of the city were strongly guarded. The citizens dared not even complain of their misery; for whoever showed any signs of discontent, was executed as a friend to the Romans, and his body thrown out unburied. The streets were filled with heaps of

the dead bodies of those who had been slain in

Jewish War, iv. 11. 4. Tacitus, Hist. ii. 73-101. Dion Cassius, lxv. lxvi.

↑ Jewish War, iv. 11. 5. Tacitus, Hist. ii. 82; v. 1. Jewish War, v. 1. 1-5.

battle, or had fallen by the hands of the executioner.*

When John perceived that he could gain no advantage over Eleazar in the inner court of the temple, he constructed moveable towers of timber which belonged to the temple; but before he began to make use of them, Titus advanced against the city with four legions of Roman soldiers, and a strong body of auxiliary troops.†

CXLV. SIEGE OF JERUSALEM, 71 A. C.

Titus led his army from Cæsarea through Samaria and Gophna to Gabaoth-saul. It was now time for all who wished to escape, to flee from the city, according to the directions of Christ in Matt. xxiv. 15-20. Titus encamped about thirty stadia from Jerusalem; and then rode forward with six hundred cavalry, to examine the condition and strength of the city, and to learn the dispositions of the Jews; for he had been informed that the people wished for peace. When he drew near the gates of the city, opposite the tower of Psephinus, the rebels rushed out of the gate by the Women's tower, near the monument of Helena, separated him from the main body of his party, and surrounded him and a few horsemen, who kept close by his side. He was unable to go forward on account of the ditches and garden walls; and a large body of Jews cut off his retreat. He at length broke through the ranks of his enemies, and escaped in safety from the shower of darts and arrows which flew about him on all sides, though he wore at that time neither a coat of mail nor a helmet.

Titus then marched from Gabaoth-saul to Scopus, seven stadia from Jerusalem, whence he had a view of the northern part of the city. He here posted two legions, and formed a line of intrenchments three stadia behind them. When the legion arrived from Jericho, he stationed it on the mount of Olives, six stadia from Jerusalem, and began to form a line of circumvallation.§

While the Romans were intrenching their camp, the three conflicting parties in Jerusalem united, and sallied out against the legion on the mount of Olives, while the soldiers were at work in their trenches. These attacks were often repeated; and in one of them, Titus was exposed to great dangers, and the Jews were repelled with difficulty.||

This union of parties in the city was of short duration. For when Eleazar, at the feast of the passover, opened the gates of the inner court, to admit the people into the terpe celebrate the feast, John sent some of his adherents among them with their weapons concealed under their garments. The Zealots sought refuge in the subterranean vaults of the temple; but there was a bloody massacre among the people. The Zealots were at last drawn from their places of concealment and dismissed without injury. Thus John made himself master of the whole temple; and there remained only two parties at Jerusalem, that of Simon and that of John.