Ister; thus the Ister receives both these, which are considerable. From the country above the Umbrici, the river Carpis and another river, Alpis, flowing toward the north, also discharge themselves into it. For the Ister flows through all Europe, beginning from the Celts, who, next to the Cynetæ, inhabit the remotest parts of Europe toward the west; and flowing through all Europe, enter the borders of Scythia. By these, then, that have been mentioned, and many other rivers that contribute their waters, the Ister becomes the greatest of all rivers. For if we compare one stream with another, the Nile surpasses in quantity; for into this no river or fountain discharging itself contributes to its increase. But the Ister always flows equal in summer and in winter, for the following reason, as I think: during the winter it is about as large as it usually is, and perhaps a little larger; for this country is very little moistened by rain during the winter, but is entirely covered with snow: in the summer, the snow that fell in the winter in vast quantities, dissolving on all sides, flows into the Ister; and this snow flowing into it assists in filling it, and frequent and violent rains besides; for it rains much in summer. By how much, therefore, the sun draws up to himself more water in summer than in winter, by so much the waters mingled with the Ister are greater in summer than in winter; and these things therefore being opposed, an equilibrium results, so that it is always found to be equal.

One of the rivers, then, of the Scythians is the Ister; after this is the Tyres, which proceeds from the north, and begins flowing from a vast lake, which separates Scythia and Neuris. At its mouth are settled Grecians, who are called Tyritæ. The third river, the Hypanis, proceeds from Scythia and flows from a vast lake, around which wild white horses graze. This lake is rightly called the mother of the Hypanis. The river Hypanis, then rising from this, is small and still sweet for a five days' voyage, but from thence, for a four days' voyage to the sea, it is exceedingly bitter; for a bitter fountain discharges itself into it, which is so very bitter, though small in size, that it taints the Hypanis, which is a considerable river among small ones. This fountain is on the borders of the territory of the Scythian husbandmen and the Alazones; the name of the fountain, and of the district whence it flows, is, in the Scythian language, Exampæus, but in the language of the Greeks, "The sacred ways." The Tyres and Hypanis contract their boundaries in the country of the Alazones; but after that, each turning away, flows on widening the intermediate space.

The fourth is the river Borysthenes, which is the largest of these after the Ister, and, in my opinion, the most productive, not only of the Scythian rivers, but of all others, except the Egyptian Nile; for to this it is impossible to compare any other river, but of the rest the Borysthenes is the most productive. It affords the most excellent and valuable pasture for cattle, and fish of the highest excellence and int great quantities; it is most sweet to drink; it flows pure in the midst of turbid rivers; the sown land near it is of the best quality; and the herbage, where the land is not sown, is very tall; at its mouth abundance of salt is crystallized spontaneously; and it produces large whales, without any spinal bones, which they call Antacæi, fit for salting, and many other things that deserve admiration. As far as the country of Gerrhus, a voyage of forty days, this river is known to flow from the north; but above that, through what people it flows no one is able to tell: but it evidently flows through a desert to the country of the agricultural Scythians; for these Scythians dwell near it for the space of a ten days' voyage. Of this river only, and of the Nile, I am unable to describe the sources; and I think that no Greek can do so. The Borysthenes continues flowing near the sea, and the Hypanis mingles with it, discharging itself into the same morass. The space between these rivers, which is a projecting piece of land, is called the promontory of Hippoleon, and in it a temple of Ceres is built; beyond the temple on the Hypanis the Borysthenitæ are settled. Thus much concerning these rivers.

After these is the fifth river, the name of which is the Panticapes; this also flows from the north, and out of a lake; and between this and the Borysthenes dwell the agricultural Scythians; it discharges itself into Hylæa, and having passed through that region, mingles with the Borysthenes. The Hypacyris is the sixth river, which proceeds from a lake, and, flowing through the middle of the Scythian nomads, discharges itself near the city Carcinitis, skirting Hylæa on the right, and that which is called the Course of Achilles. The seventh river, the Gerrhus, is separated from the Borysthenes near the place at which the Borysthenes is first known. It is separated then from this very spot, and has the same name as the country, Gerrhus; and flowing toward the sea, it divides the territory of the Nomadic and the Royal Scythians, and discharges itself into the Hypacyris. The eighth river is the Tanais, which flows originally from a vast lake, and discharges itself into a still larger lake, called Mæotis, which divides the Royal Scythians and the Sauromatæ. Into this river Tanais runs

another river, the name of which is Hyrgis. Thus the Scythians are provided with these celebrated rivers. The grass that grows in Scythia is the most productive of bile for cattle of any with which we are acquainted; and when the cattle are opened one may infer that such is the case.

Thus the greatest commodities are furnished them in abundance. Their other customs are established as follows: They propitiate the following gods only: Vesta, most of all; then Jupiter, deeming the Earth to be the wife of Jupiter; after these Apollo, and Venus Urania, and Hercules, and Mars. All the Scythians acknowledge these; but those who are called Royal Scythians sacrifice also to Neptune. Vesta, in the Scythian language, is named Tabiti; Jupiter is, in my opinion, very rightly called Papæus; the Earth, Apia; Apollo, Etosyrus; Venus Urania, Artimpasa; and Neptune, Thamimasadas. They are not accustomed to erect images, altars, and temples, except to Mars; to him they are accustomed. The same mode of sacrificing is adopted by all, with respect to all kinds of victims, alike, being as follows: The victim itself stands with its fore feet tied together; he who sacrifices, standing behind the beast, having drawn the extremity of the cord, throws it down; and as the victim falls he invokes the god to whom he is sacrificing; then he throws a halter round its neck, and having put in a stick, he twists it round and strangles it, without kindling any fire, or performing any preparatory ceremonies, or making any libation, but having strangled and flayed it he applies himself to cook it. As the Scythian country is wholly destitute of wood, they have invented the following method of cooking flesh: When they have flayed the victims, they strip the flesh from the bones, then they put it into caldrons made in the country, if they happen to have any, which very much resemble Lesbian bowls except that they are much larger; having put it into these, they cook it by burning underneath the bones of the victims. If they have no caldron at hand, they put all the flesh into the paunches of the victims, and having poured in water, burn the bones underneath they burn very well, and the paunches easily contain the flesh stripped from the bones; thus the ox cooks himself, and of all other victims each cooks itself. When the flesh is cooked, he that sacrifices, offering the first fruits of the flesh and entrails, throws it before him. They also sacrifice other cattle, chiefly horses.

In this manner, then, and these victims, they sacrifice to the other gods; but to Mars, as follows: In each district, in the place where the magistrates assemble, is erected a struc

ture sacred to Mars, of the following kind: bundles of fagots are heaped up to the length and breadth of three stades, but less in height; on the top of this a square platform is formed; and three of the sides are perpendicular, but on the fourth it is accessible. Every year they heap on it one hundred and fifty wagon-loads of fagots, for it is continually sinking by reason of the weather. On this heap an old iron scimetar is placed by each tribe, and this is the image of Mars; and to this scimetar they bring yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses; and to these scimetars they offer more sacrifices than to the rest of the gods. Whatever enemies they take alive, of these they sacrifice one in a hundred, not in the same manner as they do the cattle, but in a different manner; for after they have poured a libation of wine on their heads, they cut the throats of the men over a bowl; then having carried the bowl on the heap of fagots, they pour the blood over the scimetar. This then they carry up; but below at the sacred precinct, they do as follows: having cut off all the right shoulders of the men that have been killed, with the arms, they throw them into the air; and then, having finished the rest of the sacrificial rites, they depart; but the arm lies wherever it has fallen, and the body apart. Such, then, are the sacrifices instituted among them. Swine they never use, nor suffer them to be reared in their country at all.

Their military affairs are ordered as follows: When a Scythian overthrows his first enemy, he drinks his blood; and presents the king with the heads of the enemies he has killed in battle: for if he brings a head, he shares the booty that they take; but not if he does not bring one. He skins it in the following manner: Having made a circular incision round the ears and taking hold of the skin, he shakes from it the skull; then having scraped off the flesh with the rib of an ox, he softens the skin with his hands; and having made it supple, he uses it as a napkin; each man hangs it on the bridle of the horse which he rides, and prides himself on it; for whoever has the greatest number of these skin napkins is accounted the most valiant man. Many of them make cloaks of these skins, to throw over themselves, sewing them together like shepherd's coats; and many, having flayed the right hands of their enemies that are dead, together with the nails, make coverings for their quivers: the skin of a man, which is both thick and shining, surpasses almost all other skins in the brightness of its white. Many, having flayed men whole, and stretched the skin on wood, carry it about on horseback. Such usages are received among them.

The

heads themselves, not indeed of all, but of their greatest enemies, they treat as follows: Each, having sawn off all below the eyebrows, cleanses it, and if the man is poor, he covers only the outside with leather, and so uses it: but if he is rich, he covers it indeed with leather, and having gilded the inside, he so uses it for a drinking-cup. And they do this to their relatives if they are at variance, and one prevails over another in the presence of the king. When strangers of consideration come to him, he produces these heads, and relates how, though they were his relatives, they made war against him, and he overcame them, considering this a proof of bravery. Once in every year the governor of a district, each in his own district, mingles a bowl of wine, from which those Scythians drink by whom enemies have been captured: but they who have not achieved this do not taste of this wine, but sit at a distance in dishonour; this is accounted the greatest disgrace: such of them as have killed very many men, having two cups at once, drink them together.

Soothsayers among the Scythians are numerous, who divine by the help of a number of willow rods, in the following manner: When they have brought with them large bundles of twigs, they lay them on the ground and untie them; and having placed each rod apart, they utter their predictions; and while they are pronouncing them, they gather up the rods again, and put them together again one by one. This is their national mode of divination. But the Enarees, or Androgyni, say that Venus gave them the power of divining. They divine by means of the bark of a linden tree: when a man has split the linden tree in three pieces, twisting it round his own fingers, and then untwisting it, he utters a response. When the King of the Scythians is sick, he sends for three of the most famous of these prophets, who prophesy in the manner above mentioned; and they generally say as follows, that such or such a citizen has sworn falsely by the royal hearth, mentioning the name of the citizen of whom they speak: for it is a custom with the Scythians in general to swear by the royal hearth when they would use the most solemn oath. The person who, they say, has sworn falsely is immediately seized and brought forward; and when he is come, the prophets charge him with being clearly proved by their prophetic art to have sworn falsely by the royal hearth, and for this reason the king is ill. He denies it, affirming that he has not sworn falsely, and complains bitterly. On his denial, the king sends for twice as many more prophets; and if they also, examining into the prophetic art, condemn him with having sworn falsely,