prince and chief (chef) began to be attributed to them. It has been said that the ducs-maires of the palace sometimes assumed the title of archduke (q.v.). Under the second dynasty, the title of duke retained all its dignity and importance, and it was to the successive invasions of local upon central power, that feudality owed its origin. The concession, tacit or express, of hereditary power and independent jurisdiction, first to the central province known as the Isle of France, and then to Aquitaine, extended itself, under the Carlovingians, to Burgundy, Normandy, and Gascony; and on the accession of Hugo Capet, to all the other subaltern tenures. Having become unlimited' masters of their respective legations, the dukes did not long delay to proclaim their title to be as good as that of the king. They assumed the crown and the sceptre, promulgated laws for their subjects, struck money with their own image, and made war in their own name against the crown, with whom they balanced and several times divided the supreme authority. The confederation of the feudal lords had assumed such dimensions, that about the period of the Norman invasion of England nothing remained directly under the crown excep. a few towns, of which Rheims and Laon were the chief. The rest of the kingdom was divided among the dukes and the counts, under an obligation, which they almost always evaded, of service and fidelity to the crown. But the Capetiens had been enlightened by the fall of two dynasties, and were careful to delegate to no other hands the duchy of the Isle of France, which had so often been a stepping stone to the throne. When it became extinct in 887, it was not re-established, and that event was the signal for the restoration of a national character to France. The duchy of Gascony was joined to Aquitaine 1052; and both provinces, with Normandy, were finally re-united to the crown, 1204, by confiscation. This latter duchy was sometimes given to princes of the blood, but without any separation of its fiscal arrangements from those of the kingdom. A part of Aquitaine was given up to England 1259, and ceded back to France 1458. The ducal sovereignty of Burgundy was extinguished 1477, that of Brittany 1514, of Narbonne 1229, and of Toulouse

1361.

The duchies which were subsequently granted to members of the royal family-that of Bourbon, erected 1327; of Orleans, 1344; of Auvergne, Berri, Touraine, Valois, and Alençon, at subsequent periods-enjoyed none of the priv ileges of independent sovereignty which had belonged to the ancient duchies. The subordination of these fiefs was absolute, and the princes who governed them, though placed on the steps of the throne, were only the first subjects of the realm. The tendency to diminish the actual power which anciently had attached to the ducal title, was still more apparent in the case of those dukedoms which were conferred on the representatives of illustrious noble families. The Montmorencies were created dukes 1551, but they enjoyed no other privileges than those of titled nobles, and their position had no analogy whatever to that

of the old provincial dukes. The duke-peers, as they were called, were simply the first class of nobles in France, as are dukes in England; but they differed from English dukes, in that, after the extinction of the Comté pairie d'Eu, 1775, the duke-peers alone sat in parliament. Several prelates enjoyed this rank-for example, the abp. duke of Rheims, the bp.-duke of Laon, and the bp.-duke of Langres. The Abp. of Paris took the same rank after the erection of St. Cloud into a ducal peerage 1674. There were still two other sorts of dukes in France-the dukes who were not hereditary peers, and the dukes for life, or patent dukes, who date only from the reign of Louis XIV. Swept away by the Revolution, the title was restored by Napoleon, who conferred it, with rich endowments, on his marshals. Several ducal peers were created by Louis XVIII. and Charles X.

In Germany, the dukedom passed through phases very similar to those in the earlier history of France. For what is special to the position of the nobility of that country, see GRAF.

Dukes, in the older European sense, do not appear ever to have existed in England. The title seems not to have been known earlier than the reign of Edward III., and from the first it was a mere honorary distinction. The Black Prince, who was created duke of Cornwall (see below) 1335, was the first English duke. In 1350, Henry, the king's cousin, was created duke of Lancaster; and when he died, and his daughter was married to John of Gaunt, the king's son, the title was transferred to him-his elder brother, Lionel, being made duke of Clarence. In the succeeding reign that of Richard II.-the two younger sons of Edward III. were created, the one duke of York, the other duke of Gloucester. The dignity was thus, in the first instance, confined to the royal house. But the families of Holland and Mowbray very soon received the same title; and one of the Beauforts, an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, was raised to the peerage by the title of duke of Exeter. In the reign of Henry VI., the title was granted more widely, and there were at one time ten duchesses in his court. The Staffords. Beauchamps, and De la Poles, belong to this period. King Henry VIII. created only two dukes-one his illegitimate son, whom he made duke of Richmond; the other Charles Brandon, who married his sister, the French queen, and was made duke of Suffolk. Queen Elizabeth found only one duke when she came to the throne-Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolkattainder or failure of male issue having extinguished the rest of them. After the attainder and execution of the duke of Norfolk, there was no duke in England, except the king's sons, till Ludovic Stuart, a relative of the king's, was made duke of Richmond 1623. In the same year Villiers was made duke of Buckingham. On the Restoration, Charles II. restored the Seymours to the rank of dukes of Somerset, and created Monk Duke of Albemarle. But the habit of conferring this dignity on the illegitimate sons of the monarch was still adhered to, as in the case of the duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of Charles II.; and

the duke of Berwick, of James II. Of the existing dukes besides the descendants of Charles II., there are only three families which date their dukedoms before the Revolution -viz., the Howards, the Seymours, and the Somersets. It was William and Anne who, by advancing a very considerable number of the first families of peers to the rank of duke, altogether changed its character. There are now 11 English dukes, 7 Scotch, 5 of Great Britain, 6 of the United Kingdom, and 2 Irish. These numbers do not include dukes of the blood-royal.

THE DUCAL CORONET is composed cf a circle of gold, with eight strawberry or parsley leaves, of equal height above the rim.

DUKE OF CORNWALL. The duchy of Cornwall was by royal charter of Edward III. conferred on his son Edward the Black Prince. King Henry IV. subsequently in

cluded the D. of C. in a patent in favor of Ducal Coronet. his son Henry Prince of Wales. But since

that time, the duchy has belonged of right, without any special grant, to the king's heir-apparent from the time of his birth. On the death of the king's eldest son without issue, during the life of his father, the duchy descends to the next brother. In the event of the death of the heirapparent without issue, and without leaving a younger brother, or in case of the heir-apparent succeeding to the crown, the duchy of Cornwall merges in the crown until the birth of a son calls it again into existence. The uncertainty thus arising in regard to the duchy has produced much confusion in regard to leases held of the duke, and various acts of parliament have been passed, from the 21 James I to the reign of the present queen, to regulate this matter. The D. of C. formerly possessed royal jurisdiction and crown rights, giving liberty to send burgesses to parliament, and appointing the sheriffs, admirals, and other officers.'-Carew's Cornwall. At the present day, there is a separate chancellor, and attorney and solicitor-general for the D. of Cornwall. The revenues of the duchy are considerable, arising partly from the rents, etc., of the different manors, and partly from the dues on tin, which is produced in large quantities from the Cornish mines. There is a special court for the settlement of questions arising among the miners, called the Stannaries Court (q.v.).

DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER: instrument of torture resembling a rack, said to have been invented by the Dukes of Exeter and Suffolk during the reign of Henry VI. This curious instrument was for some time preserved in the Tower of London. Blackstone avers that it was never put into use.

DUKE OF YORK'S SCHOOL: popular designation for the Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea. Frederic, Duke of York, 1801, used his influence for the formation of a soldiers' orphan asylum; and in 1803, schools were opened for 700 boys and 300 girls, children of deceased soldiers. The institution has been kept up ever since for the boys, of

whom 500 are now maintained, but was a failure as to the girls. The boys are wholly supported as well as educated. They are not bound to serve the state after they leave the asylum; but most of them nevertheless enter the army. A soldier's son has not a right of admission; a selection is made according as vacancies may occur. When the boys leave the school, those who do not enter the army are apprenticed to trades. The expenses are defrayed by an annual parliamentary grant.

DUKHOBORTSI: see DUCHOBORTZI.

DUKINFIELD, dü'kin-feld or feld: township in the n.e. of Cheshire, 42 m. from Chester, separated from Ashton-under-Lyne in Lancashire by the Tame. It has large cotton-factories, iron-foundries, fire-brick and tileworks, and collieries. Astley's New Pit in this township, 690 yards in depth, is one of the deepest coal-mines in the world. Pop. (1881) 16,943; (1891) 17,408.

DULCAMARA, n. dul kă-mă ră [L. dulcis, sweet; amārus, bitter]: hedge plant, commonly called bittersweet' or woody-nightshade,' so named from its stalks or root when chewed, first tasting bitter, and then sweet; the Solanum dulcamāra, ord. Solanacea: see BITTER SWEET: SOLANUM.

DULCAMARIN, n. dŭl-kăm'a-rin [Eng. dulcamara]: in chem., C11 H12 05. An amorphous substance obtained from the stalks of Solanum dulcamara. It forms a yellow, transparent, resinous mass, which is sparingly soluble in ether, but readily in alcohol.

DULCAYNAS, n. důl-kā'nās [Sp.]: the name of a larger sort of oboe, or small bassoon. As it is thought that the instrument was brought into Spain by the Moors, the word may be derived from the same root as the Egyptian Dalzimr, both instruments being of the oboe or reed kind. DULCE: gulf in Costa Rica on the coast of the Pacific, covering abt. 800 sq. m. Into it empties the small river Dulce.

DULCE, dil sa or dol tha: lake in the republic of Guatemala, Central America, on the e. coast: 30 m. long, 12 m. broad; with 18 ft. of water near the shore and from 30 to

60 ft. in deeper parts It is connected with the Gulf of Honduras by Golfete lake and D. or Angostura river, and is fed by the Polochic river. The village of Izabal is on the 8. bank; and Livingston, named after Edward Livingston of New York, is on the left bank. Vessels drawing less than 6 ft. only are able to pass the bar at the mouth of the D. river.

DULCET, a. dul'set [OF. doucet or dolcet, sweet-from L dulcis, sweet]: sweet to the taste or ear; melodious; harmonious. DULCIFY, V._dul'si-fi [L. faciò, I make]: to make sweet; to sweeten. DUL CIFYING, imp. DUL'CIFIED, pp. fid.

DULCIAN, n. dùl'si an, or DULCINO, dŭl-së'nō [It.]: in mus., the name of a species of small bassoon.

DULCIANA, n dùl-sí-á'na [It.]: in mus., a word now

applied solely to a soft and delicate-toned organ stop con. sisting of very small-scale flue pipes. Originally, a dulciana was a kind of hautboy, and these terms are still found on some organ stops; but in some cases the stop is not actually reed, but the pipes by their peculiar shape, narrow at the mouth, and widening gradually toward the top, produce a reedy quality of tone. The dulciana stop was introduced into England, or perhaps invented, by the celebrated organ-builder Snetzler. Stops of this kind are most usual on the choir organ.

DULCIGNO, dil chen' yō (Slavonic Mkronich, Turkish Olgun): port of Montenegro, 20 m. s.w. of Scutari, and till 1880 a Turkish town.-Old D. fell into the hands of the Turks 1571. In the 16th and 17th c., it was the most famous den of pirates on the Adriatic; but the Turks burned the whole Dulcignote fleet. New D. stands a little farther inland. In 1880, with the approval of Turkey, the representatives of the Western Powers arranged that D. and its territories should become Montenegrin, instead of certain inland districts assigned to Montenegro in fulfilment of the Treaty of Berlin. The Albanians (perhaps not quite spontaneously) insisted on the retention of D., and an Albanian League was formed with this view. The dispatch, 1880, Sep., of a fleet representing the Great Powers, did not immediately secure the transfer; it was not till the end of November that, after endless procrastination, the Turks expelled the Albanian troops by force, and the Montenegrins were able to take possession. Pop. abt. 5,000, of whom 3,500 are said to be Mohammedan is the seat of a Rom. Cath. bishop.

D.

DULCIMER, n. dul'si-mer [Sp. dulcemele - from L. dulcis, sweet; Gr. melos, a tune or air]: musical instrument resembling a flat box with sounding board and bridges, strung with thin wire; played on by striking the wires with a small piece of wood in each hand.

DULCIN, or DULCINE: See DULCOSE.
DULCINAN: see DULCITAN.

DULCINESS, n. [L. dulcis, sweet]: sweetness; softness; mildness; easiness of temper or disposition.

DULCINIST, n. dul sin-ist [named after the founder Dulcinus]: in chh. hist., one of a sect, followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Lombardy in the 14th c. who taught fantastic doctrines concerning the Trinity. He was burnt by order of Pope Clement IV.

DULCITAN, n. [Eng. dulcite, and anhydride]: in chem., C,H12O5, dulcinan, the anhydride of dulcose, obtained by heating dulcose for some time near 200', or by boiling it with hydrochloric acid. It is a neutral syrup which volatizes at 120°, and is reconverted into dulcose by heating it with water and baryta.

DULCITANIDES, n. důl'si-tan-idz [Eng. dulcitan, and suff. -ide]: in chem, compounds formed by heating dulcose with organic acids in scaled tubes at 200 ̊. They may be