pre-eminence of female character over that of men was proposed for a question in public debate. In this discussion, Cornelius Agrippa boldly asserted the superiority of women.

Peter Paul de Ribera, an Italian, published a work entitled, "The immortal Triumphs and heroic Enterprises of eight hundred and forty-five Women." But even this ample panegyric is less singular than a publication at Venice, in 1555, called "The Temple of the divine Signora Joan of Arragon; erected in her honor by all the greatest wits, and in all the principal languages of the world." The society which conceived this method of deification, disputed upon one point only; viz. whether Joan of Arragon should possess the honors of the temple alone, or share them with her celebrated sister, the marchioness de Gaust. After mature deliberation, it was decided that two sovereigns ought not to sit on the same throne; it was therefore resolved by the academy, "that the marchioness have separate worship, and Joan of Arragon remain in the sole and exclusive possession of her altars." Latin, Greek, Italian, French, Spanish, Sclavonian, Hebrew, Chaldaic, and many other languages, were combined in this singular monument to woman's fame.

In the midst of all this adulation, women were not backward in vindicating their own claims. Several Italian ladies wrote books to prove the comparative inferiority of men; and the French women espoused the cause with equal zeal. The most conspicuous among them was Margaret of Navarre, the first wife

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of Henry the Fourth, who undertook to prove that woman is much superior to man." This princess, like Elizabeth of England, made use of expressions so gross, that we in modern times can hardly realize they came from a woman.

About the commencement of the sixteenth century, witches began to be persecuted, abused, and despised, instead of being treated with the reverence of more ancient times. Either from association with the idea of the wrinkled sibyl of Cumæ, or from some other less obvious cause, every woman who was old and haggard was in great danger of being considered a witch. Every unaccountable event in the neighborhood was charged to her; and any explanations she attempted to make were regarded as the cunning instigations of the devil. If a new disease appeared among cattle, or a blight rested on the fields, or a child had a singular kind of fit, or a neighbor had the nightmare, it was immediately attributed to the influence of some old dame, who at midnight, when honest folks were sleeping, left her mortal body and went careering through the air on a broomstick, accompanied by a train of imps. If any person afflicted with fits, or other grievances, swore that any particular individual was the cause, their oath was deemed sufficient, and the poor victim of superstition was forthwith committed to jail, there to await a cruel death. In many parts of the north of Europe, it was for several years a very remarkable thing for any old woman to die peaceably in her bed; and the same kind of excitement prevailed to a considerable extent in England,

Germany, and France. The description of witches and their accompaniments are nearly the same all the world over. Even in remote Hindostan, an old woman appeared many years ago, of whom it was reported that she used to cook owls, bats, snakes, lizards, and human flesh, in the skull of an enemy, by which means she was able to render men invisible, and strike terror into their adversaries. If the Hindoos had read Shakspeare, they could not have pictured more exactly the English ideas of a witch. A cat, and generally a black one, is usually described as one of the appendages of these enchantresses; and it was supposed that they very often assumed the form of that animal.

But it was not merely the aged who fell victims to this strange superstition: the young and the beautiful were sometimes burned at the stake, upon the charge of having dealt in magic. Such was the fate of the high-souled maid of Orleans. The duchess de Conchini, being summoned before the judges, and asked by what arts she had bewitched the queen of France, calmly replied, "Merely by that ascendency which great minds must have over little ones." In England, the duchess of Gloster was accused of making a wax figure of Henry the Sixth, and causing it to melt before the fire with certain incantations, intended to produce his death. For this offence, charged upon her by political enemies of her husband, she was condemned to walk through the streets barefoot, dressed in a white sheet, with papers pinned on her back, and a burning taper in her hand

and after performing this humiliating penance three days, followed by an insulting rabble, she was banished from the realm. Richard the Third pretended that his withered arm was produced by the sorcery of his brother's widow and Jane Shore.

Fortune-telling was a power supposed to be universally possessed by witches; and the most common method was by studying the lines of the hand. A cup containing tea or coffee grounds was sometimes chosen in preference; the person whirled it round three times toward herself, accompanying each motion with a wish; then the sorceress examined the cup, and pretended to find destiny inscribed there.

On the evening of the thirty-first of October, called Allhallow Even, or Hallow E'en, witches, devils, and fairies were supposed to be peculiarly busy. On this occasion it was common for young girls to try tricks to ascertain whom they were to marry. The burning of nuts or apple-seeds in a shovel was a favorite charm; the nuts were named, and accordingly as they burned quietly together, or bounced away from each other, it was supposed the issue of the courtship would be. Burns describes this ceremony:

"Jean slips in twa wi tentie e'e;

Wha 't was she wadna tell:

But this is Jock, and this is me,

She says in to hersel:

He bleezed owre her, an she owre him,

As they wad never mair part!

Till luff! he started up the lum,

And Jean had e'en a sair heart
To see 't that night."

It was likewise customary to go out blindfolded ard

pull the first plant of kail they met; its being big or little, crooked or straight, indicated the size and shape of the future husband or wife; the quantity of earth that clung to the root was prophetic of the degree of wealth; and the taste of the stem indicated the natural temper and disposition. Another trick was to go partly down cellar in the dark, and throw a ball of thread down stairs, keeping hold of one end to wind it; if any thing impeded it, they called out, "Who holds ?" and it was believed that a voice from the cellar would answer the name of the future spouse. Sometimes an individual stole out unperceived and sowed a handful of hemp-seed, repeating now and then, "Hemp-seed, I sow thee; hemp-seed, I sow thee; and he that is to be my true love come after me and pull thee." Then looking over the left shoulder, the appearance of the invoked person was supposed to be seen in the attitude of pulling hemp : and no doubt it often was seen; for roguish lovers did not always neglect such opportunities to advance their suit.

A volume might be filled with the "tricks" tried by young people to ascertain who would be their future husband, or wife; but these few specimens must suffice. Egyptian women were the most famous sorcerers of the ancient world; and Gipseys have been most famed for magical skill in modern times.

The fourteenth of February is called St. Valentine's day. On the evening previous, it was customary in many parts of the world for people to write valentines,