public occasions, and to declare whether the gods looked with favor upon the action proposed. No meeting of the senate or popular assembly could be held, no officer could be elected, no colony could be founded, no temple or public building could be erected, no army could start on a campaign, and no battle could be fought, unless an augur or authorized representative of the board of augurs, declared that the auspices were favorable. The habit of waiting until the omens were favorable was one of the reasons why the Romans were so careful in fortifying every camp.

The Romans had no temple similar in function and credit to that of Delphi. When about to undertake any great public or private enterprise or to do any important act, they consulted the augur, who studied the flights and cries of birds, or the haruspex, who examined the entrails of fowls. The favorable or unfavorable decision based on these omens was conclusive for the time. An expedition must not start, a camp must not be left, a battle must not be commenced, and an officer must not be elected or installed until the priest had obtained the consent of the supernatural powers. Piety, including devout regard for the omens and for the traditional forms of consulting them, was regarded as nearly allied to patriotism, and as one of the highest requisites in an officer of state.

'The religion of ancient Rome is pervaded by the belief that man neither can nor should foreknow future events, and that the gods should not assist him to gain such foreknowledge; but that the highest and best Roman god, father Jupiter, not only approves or disapproves every act in which man freely engages, but also, before its commencement, gives, to the well-informed man, visible and intelligible signs of approval or disap

proval. Under such circumstances, man can assure himself of success in life by employing a competent adviser who observes and reports the signs, and by abstaining from every project disapproved by them. The signs given by Jupiter for this purpose are of many kinds. Those of importance are not called out by any intentional action of man, such as throwing dice, but are natural celestial phenomena. A distinction is made between signs, in reply to questions, and other signs which offer themselves accidentally or unexpectedly to the observer."

The augurs divided the divine signs intended for human guidance into six classes. First, were the celestial auspices or meteorological phenomena, especially lightning, which was favorable when it passed from left to right, and unfavorable when from right to left. Second, were the ornithological auspices, including the flight and cries of wild birds, and also the manner in which hens picked up their food. It was a favorable sign that a hen, after picking up a grain of corn, allowed it to fall to the ground. The augurs kept numerous hens in a hungry condition, and in their struggles to get their shares of food, many grains were seized so hastily that they slipped from the bill. Another class of signs was found in the movements of quadrupeds and snakes. Miscellaneous warnings included the falling of inanimate objects, loud and unexpected noises, and epileptic attacks among those about to undertake an enterprise or engaged in taking the auspices. The normal condition of the entrails of a quadruped or bird sacrificed was a good, and the abnorDice and oracles to express the will known, but not prominent among the

mal a bad, omen. of the gods were Romans,

Similar to the augurs in their occupation of ascertaining and explaining the will of the gods for the guidance of men, were the haruspexes, who, however, were not organized in a board, and, so far as we can learn, did not occupy official positions. They were like modern fortune tellers, and some of them stood so high in credit that they were called upon for advice by prominent magistrates, on occasions when the augurs were not present. The haruspexes depended mainly upon their private practice for support. They found many of their omens in the entrails of fowls, but they also interpreted all the celestial and terrestrial phenomena observed by the augurs. Under the empire, a board of haruspexes was established as part of the state priesthood. Those persons to whose projects the omens were favorable were told by the haruspexes that they had the peace of the gods.'

Rome had some ecclesiastical boards of which we know but little. Among these were the flamens, the salians, and the arvals or arval brothers. The chief flamen was attached to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, and among the sacerdotal dignitaries, he ranked next to the chief pontiff. One of the duties of the arvals was to bless the growing crops. Six vestal virgins were the priestesses of Vesta, whose altar was the hearth of the state, on which a fire must be kept burning continuously. These vestal virgins were appointed when between six and ten years of age, from noble families, and were required to serve till thirty, after reaching which age they could withdraw and marry; but their abandonment of the temple was considered discreditable. They were required to be strictly chaste, under penalty of burial alive. They took rank

among themselves, according to their age; and when they appeared on the streets, they were treated by the magistrates, senators, and people with a show of great

veneration.

Besides the members of the board of flamens, many other priests were known by that name, including those who took charge of the sacrifices in large temples. Every clan had a flamen, who directed its worship and had the custody of its ecclesiastical property, such as a knife and plate for sacrifices, a cup for libations, a flint and steel for striking fire, and in some cases a temple.

From 87 to 30 B. C. the office of chief flamen was vacant. No noble who would have done credit to the state would accept it during that period. It was subject to the rule that its incumbent must remain in Italy, and this restriction prevented him from making his fortune, as most of the senators did, by plundering the provincials. Although the office was one of very high honor, it possessed neither revenue nor political influence, and was therefore never sought by men of much ambition.

SEC. 490. Roman Worship.-The typical Roman temple, though under the supervision of the pontifical board, was practically independent. It had no territorial jurisdiction, and no parishioners. Its priests held their office for life, and did not look for promotion or profit to any superior ecclesiastical authority. They did not form part of a numerous clergy, organized under strict discipline. They did not subscribe to a creed. They had not spent years in the study of theology or ecclesiastical law. They had no sacred book. They did not absolve from sin. They were not sanctimonious in their manners. They did not devote all their time to temple busi

ness,

Strict rules governed sacrifice. The animal to be offered should be unblemished and handsome, in the vigor of youth, not degraded by subjection to the yoke or to any mutilation. If for a god, it should be a male; a female, if for a goddess. For special purposes, ecclesiastical rules designated different kinds of animals. The goat feeds on the tendrils of the vine, and therefore could be used in propitiating Bacchus; the sow roots up the soil, and might be slain on the altar of Ceres. The victim was decorated with garlands and ribbons; and if it had horns, these were gilded.

The offering was preceded by the lustration or purification of the worshiper, and of all his attendant priests, and by a prayer offered by the presiding flamen, who spoke aloud with the open hands raised towards heaven, the palms upwards. If, however, the god to be invoked was Neptune, the hands were pointed to his home, the sea. The priest, after completing his prayer, laid his hand on his mouth, kissing it in adoration. Then followed the attendants, leading the animal or animals to be offered, walking three times round the altar, and keeping the right side next to the altar.

The Romans had a sacred book, that of the Sibyl, which contained a multitude of sentences, many of which could be interpreted as prophecies. This work was brought to Rome in the time of the monarchy, about 520 B. C., by an unknown woman from the Orient, who made such an impression on the king that he bought her book, which was then deposited in the temple of Jupiter, on the Capitoline Hill, and was intrusted to custodians who had the exclusive authority to inspect and interpret its prophecies. The book of the Sibyl is generally called the Sibylline books, but there was only one. The Latin liber,