night and darkness, sometimes called adeva, literally, not bright, then ungodly, evil, mischievous. This contrast between the bright, beneficent, divine, and the dark, mischievous, demoniacal beings, is of very ancient date. Druh, mischief, is used as a name of darkness or the night, and the Dawn is said to drive away the hateful darkness of Druh (vii. 75, 1; see also i. 48, 8; 48, 15; 92, 5; 113, 12). The Adityas are praised for preserving man from Druh (viii. 47, 1), and Maghavan or Indra is implored to bestow on his worshippers the light of day, after having driven away the many ungodly Druhs (iii. 3119: druháḥ ví yâhi bahuláḥ ádeviḥ). "May he fall into the ropes of Druh," is used as a curse (vii. 59, 8); and in another passage we read, "The Druhs follow the sins of men," (vii. 61, 5). As the ghastly powers of darkness, the Druh or the Rakshas, are called adeva, so the bright gods are called adruh (vii. 66, 18, Mitra and Varuṇa). Deva being applied to all the bright and beneficent manifestations in which the early Aryans discovered the presence of something supernatural, undecaying, immortal, it became in time the general name for what was shared in common by all the different gods or names of God. It followed, like a shadow, the growth of the purer idea of the Godhead, and when that had reached its highest goal it was almost the only word which had retained some vitality in that pure but exhausting atmosphere of thought. The Adityas, the Vasus, the Asuras, and other names, had fallen back in the onward race of the human

1 See Kuhn, Zeitschrift, i. 179 and 193, where véλyw, teλxiv, útpekńs, Zend Drukhs, German trügen and lügen, are all, with more or less certainty, traced back to druh. In A. S. we find dreoh-lecan, magicians; dry, magician; dulh, a wound.

mind towards the highest conception of the Divine; the Devas alone remained to express the 6s, deus, God. Even in the Veda, where these glimpses of the original meaning of deva, brilliant, can still be caught, deva is likewise used in the same sense in which the Greeks used the 6s. The poet (x. 121, 8) speaks of "Ilim who among the gods was alone god."

Yaḥ deveshu adhi devaḥ ekaḥ âsît.

A last step brings us in Sanskrit to Daiva, derived from deva, and this is used in the later Sanskrit to express fate, destiny.

There is but little to be said about the corresponding words in the Teutonic branch, fragments of which have been collected by that thoughtful scholar, Jacob Grimm. In name, the Eddic god Tyr (gen. Tys, acc. Ty) answers to the Vedic Dyu, and the Old Norse name for dies Martis is Tysdagr. Although in the system of the Edda Odhin is the supreme god, and Tyr his son, traces remain to show that in former days Tyr, the god of war, was worshipped as the principal deity by the Germans.2 In Anglo-Saxon the name of the god does no longer occur independently, but traces of it have been discovered in Tiwesdag, Tuesday. The same applies to Old High-German, where we find Ziestac for the modern Dienstag. Kemble points out names of places in England, such as Tewesley, Tewing, Tiwes mére, and Tewes Forn, and names of flowers, such as the Old Norse Tŷsfiola, Tŷrhjalm, Týsviðr, as containing the name of the god.

1 Deutsche Mythologie, p. 175.

2 Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, p. 179.

• Kemble, Saxons in England, i. p. 351. These had first been pointed out by Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, p. 180.

Besides this proper name, Grimm has likewise pointed out the Eddic tîvar, nom. plur., the gods.

Lastly, whatever may have been said against it, I think that Zeuss and Grimm were right in connecting the Tuisco mentioned by Tacitus with the AngloSaxon Tiw, which, in Gothic, would have sounded Tiu. The Germans were considered by Tacitus, and probably considered themselves, as the aboriginal inhabitants of their country. In their poems, which Tacitus calls their only kind of tradition and annals, they celebrated as the divine ancestors of their race, Tuisco, sprung from the Earth, and his son Mannus. They looked, therefore, like the Greeks, on the gods as the ancestors of the human family, and they believed that in the beginning life sprang from that inexhaustible soil which gives support and nourishment to man, and for which in their simple language they could find no truer name than Mother Earth. It is easy to see that the Mannus here spoken of by Tacitus as the son of Tuisco, meant originally man, and was derived from the same root man, to measure, to think, which in Sanskrit yielded Manu.1 Man, or, in Sanskrit, Manu, or Manus, was the proudest name which man could give to himself, the Measurer, the Thinker, and from it was derived the Old High-German mennisc, the Modern German Mensch. This mennisc, like the Sanskrit man shya, was originally an adjective, a patronymic, if you like it meant the son of man. As soon as mennisc and manushya became in common parlance the recognized words for man, language itself supplied the

1 On Manu and Minos, see Kuhn, Zeitschrift, iv. 92. The name of Saryata, the son of Manu, could hardly be compared with Krēta.

myth, that Manus was the ancestor of the Manushyas. Now Tuisco seems but a secondary form of Tiu, followed by the same suffix which we saw in mennisc, and without any change of meaning. Then why was Tuisco called the father of Mannu? Simply because it was one of the first articles in the primitive faith of mankind, that in one sense or other they had a father in heaven. Hence Mannu was called the son of Tuisco, and this Tuisco, as we know, was, originally, the Aryan god of light. These things formed the burden of German songs to which Tacitus listened. These songs they sang before they went to battle, to stimulate their courage, and to prepare to die. To an Italian ear it must have been a wild sound, reverberated from their shields, and hence called barditus (shield-song, Old Norse bardhi, shield). Many a Roman would have sneered at such poetry and such music. Not so Tacitus. The emperor Julian, when he heard the Germans singing their popular songs on the borders of the Rhine, could compare them to nothing but the cries of birds of prey. Tacitus calls them a shout of valor (concentus virtutis). He likewise mentions (Ann. ii. 88) that the Germans still kept up the memory of Arminius in their songs, and he describes (Ann. ii. 65) their night revellings, where they sang and shouted till the morning called them to fresh battles.

The names which Tacitus mentions, such as Mannus, Tuisco, &c., he could of course repeat by ear only, and if one considers the difficulties of such a task, it is extraordinary that these names, as written down by him, should lend themselves so easily to etymological explanation. Thus Tacitus states not

only that Mannus was the ancestor of the German race, but he likewise mentions the names of his three sons, or rather the names of the three great tribes, the Ingavones, Iscavones, and Herminones, who derived their origin from the three sons of Mannus. It has been shown that the Ingavones derive their name from Yng, Yngo, or Ynguio, who, in the Edda and in the Beowulf, is mentioned as living first with the Eastern Danes and then proceeding on his car eastward over the sea. There is a northern race, the Ynglings, and their pedigree begins with Yngvi, Niöror, Frayr, Fiölnir (Odin), Svegdir, all names of divine beings. Another genealogy, given in the Ynglinga-saga, begins with Niörðr, identifies Frayr with Yngvi, and derives from him the name of the

race.

The second son of Mannus, Isco, has been identified by Grinm with Askr, another name of the firstborn man. Askr means likewise ash-tree, and it has been supposed that the name ash thus given to the first man came from the same conception which led the Greeks to imagine that one of the races of man sprang from ash-trees (ex peλtav). Alcuin still uses the expression, son of the ash-tree, as synonymous with man.1 Grimm supposes that the Iscavones lived near the Rhine, and that a trace of their name comes out in Asciburgium or Asciburg, on the Rhine, where, as Tacitus had been wildly informed, an altar had been discovered dedicated to Ulysses, and with the name of his father Laërtes.2

The third son of Mannus, Irmino, has a name de

1 Ampère, Histoire Littéraire de la France, iii. 79.

2 Germania, c. 3.