known quite as well to the Hebrews. Hence, not the Phoenicians alone, but Phoenicians and Hebrews united, were really the parties who prepared the materials for the temple. "Solomon's servants were with Hiram's servant's," in the hewing of the cedartrees, and "Solomon's builders and Hiram's builders did hew the stones," 1 Kings v. 6, 18. Nor were Solomon's workmen either a small number or mere underlings, but "threescore and ten thousand that bore burdens, and fourscore thousand hewers in the mountains, beside his chief officers who were over the work, three thousand and three hundred, who ruled over the people that wrought in the work," v. 15, 16. Nor were even these chief officers, far less any officers of Hiram, the supreme managers of the hewing and the cutting; but "the king himself commanded, and they brought great stones, costly stones, and hewed stones, to lay the foundation of the house," v. 17. Solomon also designed the edifice, or got the design of it from his father David; and "Solomon built the house, and finished it," ch. vi. 14. The only need he had of the skill of the Phoenicians was in the hewing of timber, ch. v. 6, and that might have arisen from all the cedars being out of his own dominions; and though he had need also of Phoenician stone-squarers and builders, he needed them, not for superior or even equal proficiency, but simply because his own stone-squarers and builders, not withstanding their vast numbers, were not enough for executing the magnitude and magnificence of his design. His own people could all find complete employment, at all times, on their equably allotted farms; and when so many as fourscore thousand of them went, in this emergency, to hew in the mountains, no wonder if a sufficient total could not be levied to do all parts of the work. But because the aid of his neighbours was called in, are they, and not he and his people, to get the credit of what was designed and done? Because Irish labourers were employed to do a large proportion of the work of forming British railways, are they, and not British engineers, to be considered as the designers and constructors of railways?

The domestic architecture of the Hebrews, as to the structure and furniture of their dwellings, will be noticed in the article HOUSE. Their agriculture, an art in which they are generally allowed to have excelled, will be noticed in the articles HUSBANDRY, PLOUGH, FALLOW GROUND, THRESHING, VINE, and WATER. Their other arts, as to proficiency and scope, must, as in the case of the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians, have been on nearly the same pitch as their architecture and their agriculture. The arts of the Assyrians, as we showed, are known, partly from relics of them and partly from sculptural representations of them, to have possessed a finish and a variety in perfect keeping with the elegance and ornature of the Assyrian palaces; and the arts of the Hebrews may be inferred, on corresponding grounds, but especially from the Bible's plentiful

notices of their dresses, their personal ornaments, their musical instruments, their weapons, and their implements, to have possessed an excellence and a breadth, completely harmonious with the architectural style of the temple. Nor could the Hebrews fail to have large acquaintance with the arts of other lands, even to the extremities of the civilized world, partly from Solomon's extensive importations, and still more from those of the Phoenicians, 1 Kings x. 14-29, Ezek. xxvii. 3--25. The arts of painting and sculpture, indeed, are commonly alleged to have been in a low state, or almost unknown among them, for the reason that they were not allowed to depict religious subjects. But they were prohibited only from making graven images or likenesses from idolatrous feeling; they were not prohibited from making, but were encouraged to make, representations of fruit and foliage; they had every incitement to expatiate on the endless beauties of the vegetable kingdom; they would find in them as nice, as delicate, as intricate, as brilliant, as diversified a scope for their taste and genius, especially in their own bright climate and amid their own splendid landscapes, as can be found through all nature in more cloudy lands; and they do not appear to have been laggards any more in their flights of fancy than in their efforts of common art. Their poetry was sublime; their music seems to have been excellent; their embroidery seems to have been such as Raphael would have admired, when he wished his cartoons to be elaborated through the instrumentality of the embroiderer's skill; and their sculpture, judged by the specimen of it in Solomon's "house of the forest of Lebanon," as described by Josephus in a passage we have quoted, seems to have been exquisite.

The Proto-Ionic architecture, to which we now come, will not detain us long. It spread from the west of Assyria or the north of Syria, through all Asia Minor, to the sea of Marmora. We call it Proto-Ionic on account of its having formed the nexus between the quasi-Ionic of the Deutero-Assyrian or of the Syrian architecture and the classic or final Ionic of the Grecian. But it formed that nexus in a loose and suspensive manner. It first degenerated, then assumed a wooden character, then transferred its wooden outlines to stone, then conveyed itself to the nascent architecture of Greece, then took back the Grecian modifications of it, and blended these with its own forms. Its influence on the early Greek architects-in contributing the lighter or Ionic elements, as the Egyptian style contributed the heavier or Doric ones, out of which they worked their own architecture to maturity-is the chief thing which has given it interest; but its influence on scientific modern architects-in supporting, or perhaps originating, their prevailing theory respecting the pristine condition of all ancient or early architecture-appears to us to be equally remarkable. Its wooden character was of long continuance; its transference of this to stone was done

its

so systematically as to make all its rock-carving and masonry look exactly as if they had been cut by carpenters; and its placing these in the van of the movements which elicited the pure Grecian style, taken along with the fact that this style, till very recently, was universally regarded as the earliest true or artistic style in the world, easily accounts for the prevalence and the plausibility, perhaps also for the origin, of the notion of scientific archæologists, that all pristine architecture sprang from wooden forms. As the Grecian architecture, rising directly out of the Proto-Ionic, had manifestly a wooden origin; and as that architecture was thought to be the first fine one which ever existed, and was supposed to be the result of progressive development through a long course of increasing civilization; so, it was inferred, did early stone masonry, in every instance, spring from imitation of wooden structures. But the Proto-Ionic really sprang from a very old and ornate stone style, went down to a wooden character by semi-savage degeneracy, and most probably was reclaimed back from it by the influence of very old ornate stone styles which continued to flourish in its neighbourhood; so that even it affords evidence as to the universal priority of masonry to wooden structure, or of houses to tents.

The remains of this architecture are few and unimportant. Most were so absorbed or superseded by

true Grecian or by Roman structures, as either to have entirely disappeared, or to be now nearly undistinguishable; and the chief ones undestroyed are tombs and fragments of various kinds of edifices, in Lycia, discovered in 1838, by Sir Charles Fellows. The oldest tombs do not appear to date earlier than the time of the Persian conquest of Cyrus and Harpagus; the most distinct were formed, not by building with stones, but by excavating and cutting? live rock; and several exhibit so near an approach to the true Grecian as to present perfect portico-façades, with columns, entablature, and pediment. "The peculiarities," says Sir C. Fellows, "in the architectural detail are very remarkable in these early specimens of represented buildings in the rocks. They show distinctly the imitation of wooden structures, and, by the nature of the joints, ties, and mouldings, give a perfect insight into the knowledge of the construction of ancient Greek buildings. The panelled doors, with bossed nails on the styles, knockers suspended from lions' mouths, and other ornaments in the panels, also show much taste and accuracy of execution. Those tombs here which would rank among the great divisions or orders of architecture, are of the Ionic, and evidently in its earliest or simplest form." We subjoin, from Sir C. Fellows' work, engravings of three of the most proximately Grecian.

Sculptures, inscriptions, and cyclopean masonry, in the same region and of the same age as these rocktombs, demonstrate the connexion of the Proto-Ionic with the earlier architectures. The sculptures are in very low relief, similar to that of the Egyptian and the Persepolitan monuments; and while representing much variety of domestic, historical, and mythological subjects, they exhibit nothing which can be identified with the known history of Greece. The inscriptions are in a character and a language which seem to have sprung from a Semitic stock. "The characters are not of Greek, but probably of Phoenician origin; and the root of the language, judging from many of the names of the cities, may have been derived also from the same nation, or from the Hebrew, which appears a natural geographical progression." The

cyclopean masonry resembles that of Egypt, Syria, and Persia, but is blended with the nascent Greek; and it occurs in the remains of Pinara, and in those of one or two other cities. "Beneath a singular round rocky cliff," says Sir C. Fellows, "lay the principal part of the extensive and splendid city of Pinara. Two other places, at different elevations, were also covered with massive buildings; and on either side of these were tombs scattered for a considerable distance, some of them surrounded by columns. The walls and several buildings of the city were of the cyclopean style, with massive gateways formed of three immense stones. I measured one over the portal, which was 14 feet in length. The buttresses of the same walls were of regularly These modes of building were squared stones.

both used in the same works, and certainly at the same time."

The Grecian and the Roman architectures might now seem to demand as large attention from us, in their relation to the lands and times of the New Testament scriptures, as the more ancient architectures have had, in their relation to the lands and times of the Old. They superseded these architectures, more or less, in all the lands before the New Testament canon opened; they figured in some cases prominently, in other cases entirely, in all the cities and towns which the New Testament scriptures mention; and they have left remains, which challenge attention and incite high interest, in most of the Bible lands. But they are so well known from the abundant modern imitations of them in all parts of the western world, and even their history is so accessible in many popular publications, that any account of them here would be superfluous.-The chief remains of them, also, in the numerous towns or places which were visited by the apostles, or which became otherwise linked into scriptural association, will be found noticed in the articles on these towns or places throughout our work.

ARCTURUS, årk-tu-růs, a star of the first magnitude, in the constellation Bootes, in the northern hemisphere. The word occurs in Job ix. 9 and xxxviii. 32, but is believed to be there a designation of the constellation Ursa Major or the great bear. The Hebrew word which it represents is aish; and Niebuhr informs us that, though the Arabs have no names in their language related to the several names of constellations in the book of Job, yet some of then call the great bear ash, nash, or benat-nash; and from a conversation he held with a Jewish astrologer at Bagdad, he is of opinion that aish signifies the great bear. Aben Ezra, in his commentary on Job, is also of this opinion. He says that aish is a northern constellation composed of seven stars, that "the number of the constellations is twenty-one," and that "aish and her sons are the stars of the great bear."

ARD, ård, the youngest son of Benjamin, Gen. xlvi. 21. Also the son of Bela, and grandson of Benjamin, Numb. xxvi. 40, called Addar in 1 Chron. viii. 3. His descendants are called the Ardites, Numb. xxvi. 40.

ARDON, år-důn, son of Caleb and Azuba, 1 Chron. ii. 18.

ARELI, â-rẻ ́-ll, the younger son of Gad, Gen. xlvi. 16, Numb. xxvi. 17. His descendants are called the Arelites, Numb. xxvi. 17.

AREOPAGUS, à-rè-ôp ́-à-gùs, a place in Athens, where the judges or chief magistrates of the city held their supreme court or sovereign tribunal; also that court itself, which was long famous for the justice and impartiality of its decisions, and was esteemed so sacred and venerable that even the gods were fabled to have submitted to its authority. The word Areopagus signifies Mars' hill, and it occurs in

the seventeenth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles in both the untranslated and the translated forms, verses 19 and 22. The place is a small rocky eminence of Athens, situated a little to the north-west of the acropolis or citadel. It rises gradually from the northern end, terminates abruptly on the south, and has there a height of about fifty or sixty feet above an elevated valley which separates it from the acropolis. It got its name either from its being at one time the site of a temple dedicated to Mars, when the city was named after his sister Athena or Minerva, or because it is pretended that Mars was the first accused person tried there for the murder of Halirrhotius, son of Neptune. This court, according to Plutarch and Cicero, was constituted by the celebrated lawgiver Solon; although other writers maintain that it was established by Cecrops, the founder of Athens, nearly fifteen hundred and fifty-six years before the Christian era, or by Cranaus, one of his successors. It consisted of an open space, in which was an altar dedicated to Minerva Aria; and two side seats of stone were allowed to the defendant and his accuser. Vitruvius, however, alleges that it was at a later period enclosed and roofed with tiles. Spon, who minutely examined the antiquities of Athens, found some remains of the Areopagus in the temple of Theseus, a building once within the city, but now without the walls. That traveller says that the foundation of the Areopagus is a semicircle, with an esplanade of one hundred and forty paces round it, which properly formed the hall of the Areopagus. A tribunal is cut in the middle of a rock, with seats on each side, where the Areopagites or judges sat, exposed to the open air. But it is evident, from the celebrated work of Mr. Stuart on the 'Ruins of Athens,' that though some small remains of the foundation of the buildings are still visible upon the eminence where the Areopagus was situated, there is nothing in existence by which its former construction can be positively determined. A view of the Areopagus, with the temple of Theseus and the environs of Athens, is given in an accompanying engraving.

The court, it is said, consisted at first of nine archons, the original number of the chief magistrates of Athens; but afterwards that number was extended to thirty-one, to fifty-one, and even to a greater number, to as many as five hundred. The salary of the judges, when they amounted to nine, was equal, and was from the public treasury, they receiving three oboli, equal to eightpence three farthings, for every cause they decided, and holding their office for life. They sat in judg ment in the open air, and they always held their meetings during the night, that their minds might be free and unprejudiced, on three nights of each month, the 27th, the-28th, and the 29th; but they met oftener, when urgent business required, in the royal portico. At this period, this court was held in the highest repute for wisdom