quisite unity to justify such a comparison, but (which is most relevant) no true hero-saga of grand, national, historical importance has developed from the mythical germ. Only the personages and the episodes belong to history or the hero-saga. The main action lies yet entirely in the region of myth. Even that theme which first kindled the epic flame, Beowulf's deeds in battle against Theudebert, is treated as a mere accessory. We have thus in Beowulf a half-finished epos, as if benumbed in the midst of its growth. The introduction of Christianity was doubtless one of the causes that destroyed the productive power of epic poetry. The vital continuity of mythical tradition was interrupted; new material and new ideas came gradually to the foreground in the nation's mind. The elements which, though developed simultaneously with the epos, as we have seen, bore the germs of the decay of the epic style, were greatly increasing; viz., the inclination to reflection, to elegiac tenderness. Besides this, the founding of a literature raised a barrier between the learned and and the unlearned. But even had Christianity and literature not been introduced, Beowulf would hardly have become an English Iliad. Such poems arise only among nations that victoriously maintain ideals of higher culture against inimical forces. If Beowulf is no national poem and no epos in the strict sense, taking matter and composition into account, yet as regards style and tone, character and customs, it is both in a high degree; and it is not without significance that a poem stands at the head of English literature whose subject is the struggle with the waves, and which is permeated by a vivid perception of the sea and of sea life. A great wealth of poetic feeling is revealed in this poem. We are charmed by pictures of external things and actions delineated with most realistic freshness, and epic minuteness. Beowulf's voyage to Dane-land, his meeting with the strandwatch, his reception at court, then the struggle with Grendel and Grendel's mother, the gloomy, mysterious aspect of the sea upon whose bottom stands Grendel's dwelling, illumined by a subterranean glow, these and similar scenes are depicted by a master hand. The characters also appear before us in clear outlines. It is true they are most simple, and are all of the same mould. No great art is necessary to lay bare the springs of their actions. We learn, however, to feel for, and with them, and some of them compel our admiration. With all their sim plicity, they are ennobled by the moral passion which pervades them. A profound and serious conception of what makes man great, if not happy, of what his duty exacts, testifies to the devout spirit of English paganism, a paganism which the Christian doctrine certainly softened, but did not transform in its innermost nature. The ethical essence of this poetry lies principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his thegns, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him. The following passages will illustrate some of the qualities mentioned. Eeowulf finds himself in extreme danger in the fight with the dragon: Also: His comrades gathered not in a group about him, The weal of kindred in one who thinketh well. The dear shield-bearer, chief of the Scylfings, He thought of the good things granted him by his liege: Folk-rights all as his father had them. Then could he not hold back; his hand-shield broad Of yellow linden seized he. And he drew his sword- He rushed through the reek of death; to the help A few words: "Beowulf, do all well As thou saidst of yore in thy youth, thou wouldst O strong in deeds, brave lord, with all thy strength IV. 2596-2612. Wiglaf was descended from the race of Wægmundings, whose original seat was in Geataland; but he was probably born in Sweden, at the time his father Weohstan served the Swedish king Onela; this explains the designation, "chief of the Scylfings," applied to him in v. 2603. 2 V. 2661-2668. And further the account of Beowulf's end. At his com mand Wiglaf has gathered together the treasure of the slaugh tered dragon, and brings it to him: Bearing the hoard there found he the far famed king, His lord, all bloody, lying at life's end. He began to sprinkle the prince again With water, until the word's point from the coffer "I thank with words the Ruler of all things, Who drive afar their keels o'er the mists of the floods." The glittering golden ring; he gave to his thegn, The young spear-hero, the gold-hued helmet, The collar and armour, and bade him use them well; Of the Wægmundings. Death hath driven Only a few short fragments of the English epos besides Beowulf have been preserved. We take up first the fragment of the Battle of Finnsburg. The connection in which this belongs becomes clear only when we compare it with a song in Beowulf which one of Hrothgar's glee-men sings at Heorot the day after the victory over Grendel. Sixty Danes led by Hnæf and Hengest are attacked by Finn, the king of the Frisians, in his own castle. Hnæf falls in the contest, but the Danes defend themselves with heroism for five days. Finn loses nearly all of his men, as well as his sons and brothers-in-law. At last a treaty is brought about. Hnæf's corpse is burnt with great solemnities, of which there is a circumstantial account in Beowulf. 1 V. 2788-2816. 2 V. 1068 et seq. BATTLE OF FINNSBURG. 31 But the peace is not lasting. Nemesis does not rest until the bloody deed has begotten new deeds of blood. The complications terminate only with the deaths of Hengest and Finn. The fragment takes us into the midst of the struggle at Finnsburg, whose issue and results are related in Beowulf. The narrative is extraordinarily poetical, vigorous, and animated. Indeed the Old English writings are distinguished by such descriptions of battle. At the beginning of the fragment is a speech of Hengest as follows: Then cried the king, young in battle: "This dawns not from the east hither; nor flies a dragon here; yet burn not the horns of this hall; but they come to surprise us. The birds sing; the cricket chirps; the war-wood sounds; shield answers to shaft. Now the full moon shines under clouds; now deeds of woe arise, which the hate of this folk is minded to do. But arouse, my warriors, lift up your hands; think of your strength; fight in the fore-rank, be of courage!" The battle rages. More than one hero covers the ground. "The raven wandered swart and sallow-brown. Swordgleam stood, as if Finnsburg were all on fire." While this epic fragment belongs with Beowulf to the saga-cycle of the North and Baltic sea-coast region, the two fragments of Waldere betoken the community of thought which, in German antiquity, united the most diverse tribes belonging to that great race. These are the remains of an epos celebrating the well-known Walther of Aquitaine, and the version of the saga, followed here, is essentially the same as that of the Latin poem of Ekkehard of St. Gall, written about two hundred years later, i. e., in the first half of the tenth century. Besides other treasures, Walther has carried off Hildgund (Hildguo), betrothed to him from earliest youth, from Attila's court where they were tarrying as hostages. Upon the way home he is attacked in the Vosges by Gunther (Guðhere) and his warriors, among whom is Hagen, Walther's boycomrade. He fights them and is victorious. The fragments partially fill out both pauses coming between the three phases of the contest: Ekkehard gives only two. Single traits betray an independent amplification of the legend, from which we may conclude that it circulated early among the English tribes. They show also the popularity which the legends of Weland and Theodoric enjoyed, both among Angles and Saxons. The English tradition of Theodoric places him in close relation to Weland's son Widia, who is called "Wudga" in the Widsith-poem. What is preserved to us of the Old English epic grants but a very inadequate insight into the history of its development, but leaves us to imagine the greatness of the loss which we have here to deplore. And yet how rich may English iiterature deem itself in this respect when compared with the Old High German! IV. Toward the close of the sixth century, the conversion of the English to Christianity was begun by Roman mission aries. About a century later Christianity was acknowledged as the dominant religion in all the English states. The power of the Archbishop of Canterbury as "Britanniarum archiepiscopus" was firmly established; the English church was most intimately united with the papal see. This had cost some struggles. Besides the hostile pagan element, there were other opponents to be vanquished, who seemed, at times, still more dangerous. In the Anglian states of the north, especially in Northumbria, the envoys preaching as delegates from Rome met missionaries of the Irish church. At that time this church was pre-eminent for religious zeal and erudition, but was obnoxious to the papacy because it, as well as the British church, referred its origin to apostolic times, and firmly maintained its own rite and independent organisation against the efforts proceeding from Rome to establish the unity of the church. By the aid of native kings and queens, especially through the vigorous measures of the Northumbrian king Oswiu, England was gained for Catholic unity, and the refractory elements were subdued or set aside. Nevertheless a liberal and truly national spirit was maintained in the English church, and has survived to the present day; a spirit which seemed to slumber at times, but only to break forth again with renewed vigor. This was due to the political public spirit always powerful in England, to the insu |