It is true that the ancients ascribe in part the erection of Pasargada and Persepolis to the two earliest monarchs of the old Persian race-Cyrus and Cambyses; but this is easily reconcilable with the supposition that Darius and Xerxes were their principal founders. Niebuhr has already remarked, that the buildings of Persepolis do not appear all to belong to the same period, nor to have been constructed on one uniform plan, and this is especially true of those situated on the third terrace. It is certain that most of the considerable remains of remote antiquity (as was particularly the case with Egyptian edifices) were much more slowly erected than we might be inclined to suppose; and it is extremely probable that successive kings of Persia may have taken part in the erection of Persepolis, especially as the undertaking assumed the character of a religious duty; not to mention that continual additions must, from time to time, have been found necessary.

We may now pronounce with certainty (what before must have been mere conjecture) that the arts of architecture and sculpture must, long before the dynasty of the Persians, have attained a much higher degree of perfection than men have been generally disposed to admit. If this be doubted, we must be prepared to show that such efforts of art as the edifices of Chehl-Menar could have started at once into existence, as if by enchantment. In these structures we see proofs that architecture must have attained, when they were erected, a wonderful degree of excellence in its mechanical department. No spot on the globe (Egypt perhaps excepted) displays such masonry as the walls of Persepolis. It was unquestionably a prodigious advantage to the architect that the neighbouring mountains afforded him materials on the very spot; but no other nation has left examples of an equally skilful combination of such enormous blocks of marble. The character and style of the building is, however, perhaps still more remarkable, being directly opposed to that of the Egyptians, with which it has been injudiciously compared; if we are not mistaken, the original modes of life of the two races may be traced even in the several styles of their architecture. The observer of Egyptian antiquities can hardly fail to remark the grotto-style of building there prevalent, bespeaking a

nation long accustomed to a sort of Troglodyte life, in caverns and hollows of the rock. The gigantic temples of Thebes and Philæ are obviously imitations of excavated rocks; the short and massive pillars representing the props, left to uphold the roof of such excavations, and the whole structure conveying the impression of enormous incumbent weight, and proportionate resistance on the other hand, the remains of Persepolis indicate a nation not in the habit of occupying the bosoms of their hills, but accustomed to wander free and unconstrained over their heights and among their forests, and who, when they forsook this nomad life, sought to retain in their new

BAS-RELIEF IN DOOR FRAME OF PALACE,
PERSEPOLIS

habitations as much as possible of their original liberty. Those terrace foundations, which appear like a continuation of the mountain, those groves of columns, those basins, once, no doubt, sparkling with refreshing fountains, those flights of steps, which the loaded camel of the Arab ascends with the same ease as his conductor, forming a sort of highway for the nations whose images are sculptured there-all these particulars are as much in unison with the character of that joyous land which the industry of the Persians converted into an earthly paradise as the gigantic temples of Egypt are appropriate memorials of their old grottos in the rocks. The columns of Persepolis shoot upwards with a slender yet firm elevation, conveying a fit image of the stems of the lotus and palm, from which they were probably copied. As in Egypt everything is closely covered, and, as it were, oppressed by a roof, so here is everything free and unconfined, in admirable harmony with the religion of the nation, whose sole objects of worship were the sun, the elements, and the open vault of heaven.

No

The art of design also preserves in the ruins of Persepolis a character peculiar to itself, a character of sobriety and dignity. Sculpture here appears formed on the habits of a court, and of an oriental court. female or naked figure is to be traced, the seclusion of the harem being religiously respected. Of the male figures, none are portrayed in any violent or constrained attitude, not even when the monarch is represented destroying a monster; and it is only in the conflicts of animals with one another that the artist has displayed his power of expressing strong excitement. Where everything had reference to a court, no attitude was admissible which was not sanctioned by court etiquette. At the same time, this air of composure and dignity does not degenerate into stiffness; the design of the artist appears to have been, not to excite an impression of the beautiful, but a feeling of veneration - an end which has been fully attained. It is to be observed that no statue, nor any vestige of one, appears to have been discovered,

and Persian sculpture seems to have been confined to the carving of reliefs, more or less prominent; and in the case of the monstrous figures which guard the entrance, amounting to half-relievos. How different are these historical relievos of Persia from those of the Egyptians, the favourite themes of which are battles and triumphal processions! There the object of the artist has been to exhibit the characters of action and energy; here, those of repose. In its subjects, also, the Persian sculpture is distinguished from that of the Egyptians, as well as that of the Indians. While it occasionally delineated superhuman beings, such as feroohers and izeds, it abstained from the deities themselves. On the other hand, it is in close and perfect harmony with the architecture it accompanies. As the latter was lofty and grand, but not colossal, so was the former, and both characterised by a high degree of simplicity. It was the most obvious and natural idea with which the ancient artist could set about his work, to make the one the handmaid of the other, and the sculptor may be said to have given animation to the labours of the architect, by representing under emblematical figures the design of his works. Accordingly, as the different parts of the edifice combined to form a whole, so the various groups of sculpture composed one general design, and all, down to the most minute decorations, were in strict unison with one leading idea, associated with the religious opinions of the nation. With the exception of the fabulous animals, everything was copied from nature; and from the parts of these monsters were borrowed nearly all the ornaments, consisting for the most part of the heads of unicorns and claws of griffins; and chimerical as these fabulous creations may at first sight appear, they are all capable of being reduced to four or five elementary forms of real animals-the horse, the lion, the onager or wild ass, the eagle, and the scorpion, to which we may perhaps add the rhinoceros.

In proportion, however, as the mythology at the command of the sculptor were limited, so his circle of observation, as applied to real nature, was extensive. He appears to have been familiar with the nations of more than one quarter of the globe, and to have distinguished with exactness their features and profiles, the thick lips and woolly hair of the negro being no less accurately marked than the limbs of the half-naked Indian. The same mechanical accuracy also and perfect finish, which distinguishes the architectural details, is observable in the labours of the sculptor. We may still count the nails in the wheels of the chariot in the great relievo; and the hair of the negro is so carefully wrought, that it is impossible to confound it with that of the Asiatics. This sort of scrupulous care, which marks also the inscriptions, appears in all countries to have distinguished the infancy of the art.b

BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS

[The letter is reserved for Editorial Matter.]

CHAPTER I. LAND AND PEOPLE

с

EDUARD MEYER, Geschichte des Alterthums. MAX DUNCKER, Geschichte des Alterthums.The Holy Bible. — HERODOTUS, The History of Herodotus (translated from the Greek by William Beloe). — XENOPHON, The Cyropædia (translated from the Greek by J. S. Watson and Henry Dale).

CHAPTER II. THE MEDIAN OR SCYTHIAN EMPIRE

с

HERODOTUS, op. cit. - THEODORE NÖLDEKE, article "Persia," in the Encyclopædia Britannica. A. H. SAYCE, The Higher Criticism and the Monuments. - The Holy Bible. -R. W. ROGERS, History of Babylonia and Assyria. — 9 CTESIAS, Persica. — Berosus, Βαβυλωνικά. — ' STRABO, Γεωγραφικά.

CHAPTER III. THE EARLY ACHEMENIANS AND THE ELAMITES, CYRUS
AND CAMBYSES

- CTESIAS

THEODORE NÖLDEKE, op. cit. — HERODOTUS, op. cit. — XENOPHON, op. cit. op. cit. - VICTOR FLOIGL, Cyrus und Herodot nach den neugefundenen Keilinschriften. — 9 G. MASPERO, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient. — A. H. SAYCE, op. cit.-H. C. RAWLINSON, "Outline of the History of Assyria." - POLYÆNUS, ETратηynμaτa. * XANTHUS, Lydiaca. EDUARD MEYER, op. cit. BEROSUS, op. cit. —” J. V. PRášek, Kambyses und die Ueberlieferung des Altertums.

m

CHAPTER IV. THE PERSIAN DYNASTY: DARIUS I TO DARIUS III

k

EDUARD MEYER, op. cit. - HERODOTUS, op. cit. & H. C. RAWLINSON, The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun. G. MASPERO, op. cit. — DIODORUS, Historical Library.

- XENOPHON, op. cit.

CHAPTER V. PERSIAN CIVILISATION

A. H. L. HEEREN, Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity (Asiatic Nations). H. C. RAWLINSON, op. cit.d XENOPHON, op. cit. 1e The Holy Bible. — HERODOTUS, op. cit. - JAS. MORIER, Journey through Persia, etc.. .* R. K. Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, etc.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PERSIAN HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR EDITORIALLY CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY.

Alianus, Claudius, Пotkiλn IoTopía, Rome, 1545.- Eschylus, Persæ, Tragedies of Eschylos. Literally translated by Th. A. Buckley, London, 1663.- Alcock, Th., Travels in Russia, Persia, Turkey, and Greece in 1828-1829, London, 1831.- - Ali Riza of Shiraz (Ibn Abd al-Karim), Das tarikh i-Zendije (herausg. von Ernst Beer). History of the Zend-Dynasty in Persia, Leyden, 1888. — Anacleri, G., La Persia deseritta, relazione di un viaggio, Napoli, 1868. Arbuthnot, Persian Portraits, London, 1887.-Augur, T., Tratado de la conquista de las islas de la Persia y Arabia de la muchas tierras, Salamanca, 1512.

Babelon, E., Catalogue des monnaies grecques de la Bibliot. Nationale: Les perses, achémenides, les satrapes et les dynastes tributaires de leur empire, Cypre et Phénicie, Paris, 1894. Backer, L. de, La Perse et la question d'orient, Saint Omer, 1867.- Bang, W., Zur Erklärung der altpersischen Keilinschriften (in Mélanges de Charles de Harlez), Leyden, 1896.-Barbier de Meynard, C. A., Dictionnaire géographique, historique et littéraire de la Perse et des contrées adjacentes, Paris, 1861. — Bassett, J., Persia and the Land of the Imans, London, 1887.-Bauer, A., Die Kyrossage und Verwandtes (in Wiener Acad. d. Wiss. Bd. 100, 1882, Wien, 1882). - Benjamin, S. G. W., Persia and the Persians, London-Boston, 1887; The Story of Persia, New York, 1891.-Berchet, G., La Repubblica di Venezia e la Persia, Torino, 1865. - Bezold, C., Die Achämenideninschriften, Leipsic, 1882. - Bible, The Holy ("authorised version "), London, 1611; ("revised version") London, 1884. Bird, I., Journeys in Persia and Kurdestan, London, 1893.Boettger, B., Persische Heldensagen, Eppendorf, 1900.- Bonvalot, Revolutions de la Perse ancienne et moderne, Paris, 1833. — Booth, A. J., The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions, New York, 1902. - Borrichius, A., De Persico Imperio, Hafn, 1688. — Brodbeck, A. Zoroaster, ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Geschichte der Religionen und philosophischen Systeme des Morgen- und Abendlandes, Leipsic, 1893.Brugsch, H., Reise der k. preussischen Gesandtschaft nach Persien, Berlin, 1860-1861. Brun-Renaud, C. G. N., La Perse politique et militaire au XIX siècle, Paris, 1894. — Bruyn, Le, Reysen over Moscovien door Persien en Oost-Indien, Delft, 1711.- Buchholz, A., Quæstiones de Persarum Satrapis Satrapusque, Leipsic, 1895.- Buckingham, J. S., Travels in Assyria, Media, and Persia, London, 1828.-Burnouf, E., Mémoire sur deux inscriptions cunéiformes, Paris, 1836; Études sur la langue et les textes Zendes, Paris, 1840-1850; Science of Religions, London, 1888.

Casartelli, L. C., The Philosophy of the Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanides, Bombay, 1889; La religion des rois achéménides d'après leurs inscriptions, Brussels, 1895. Castonnet des Fosses, H., Les Relations de la France avec la Perse, Angers, 1889. Champollion-Figeac, J. F., Histoire des peuples anciens et modernes, Asie orientale, la Perse, Lagny, 1857.- Chardin, F., Voyages en Perse et autres lieux de l'orient, Paris, 1811, 10 vols.; Travels into Persia and the East Indies, London, 1836.- Clermont-Ganneau, C. S., Études d'archéologie orientale, Paris, 1895.-Cloquet, L., L'art monumental des Indous et des Perses, Brussels, 1896. Collins, E. T., In the Kingdom of the Shah, London, 1896. — Ctesias, Persica. — Curzon, G. V., Persia and the Persian Question, London, 1892, 2 vols.

Darmesteter, J., Haurvatat et Ameretat, essai sur la mythologie de l'Avesta, Paris, 1875; Essais orientaux, Paris, 1883; Ormuzd, et Ahriman, Paris, 1877; Études iraniennes, Paris.