ability to hold their ground against the regular troops of Great Britain, and inspired them with a confidence which attended them during the entire war.

Washington reached the army before Boston several days after the battle of Bunker Hill, and immediately took command. He was received with enthusiasm by the troops and people. He was accompanied by General Charles Lee, an officer who had seen service before. Congress had appointed a full complement of general officers for the army, all of whom were with their commands. The Major-Generals were: Charles Lee, of Virginia, Philip Schuyler, of New York, Artemas Ward, of Massachusetts, and Israel Putnam, of Connecticut. The Brigadiers were: Horatio Gates, Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene. Of all these, Gates was the only man who possessed sufficient experience to be of much assistance to Washington in the task of perfecting the organization of the army, which was in reality little better than a mere rabble in discipline, clothing, and equipment. By extraordinary exertions, Washington and Gates at length succeeded in bringing the force to a tolerably effective condition. Boston was at once regularly besieged, and closely invested until March 17th, 1776, when, Washington having secured a position from which his cannon could render the city untenable, the British forces evacuated the place, and sailed for Halifax. They were accompanied by a large body of loyalists, who feared to remain in the town after its occupation by the Americans.

Meanwhile, during the progress of the siege of Boston, other operations had been going on elsewhere. General Montgomery had been sent into Canada with a small, weak force, to conquer that province, which was believed to be disaffected towards England. His second in command was Benedict Arnold, who rendered brilliant service. during the campaign. The principal event of the invasion was a joint attack upon Quebec by Montgomery and Arnold, which was unsuccessful, and in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. The expedition accomplished nothing of importance, and was compelled to return to the Colonies, after suffering great losses and considerable hardships.

A British fleet attacked and burned Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) on the New England coast, and committed many outrages on the coast of Virginia. A powerful force, under Sir Peter Parker, attacked Fort Sullivan, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina,

during the year to fit out several cruisers, which were fortunate enough to capture a number of prizes loaded with military stores for the British army, and which proved of infinite service to the

Americans.

Indeed, these captures seemed providential, for often when the stock of arms and munitions was running low, a cruiser would make its way into port with a prize laden with the supplies most needed, which it had taken from the enemy.

Congress took measures for the active prosecution of the war. Supplies were drawn from the West Indies, and a regular system for that purpose inaugurated; powder mills and cannon founderies were provided for; thirteen frigates were ordered to be built (a few of which eventually got to sea); a committee of war, one of finance, and a secret committee, to which was entrusted the negotiations of the Colonies with the individuals and authorities of foreign States, were appointed; and an energetic, if defective, system of government for

the "United Colonies" was fairly established. Finally, on the 4th of July, 1776, Congress adopted a declaration on behalf of the Colonies, declaring their independence of the English crown, and proclaiming that henceforth the Colonies were free and independent States. This declaration changed the entire nature of the struggle. "The war," says Bancroft, "was no longer a civil war; Britain was become to the United States a foreign country. Every former subject of the British king in the thirteen Colonies now owed primary allegiance to the dynasty of the people, and became citizens of the new republic; except in this, everything remained as before; every man retained his rights; the Colonies did not dissolve into a state of nature, nor did the new people undertake a social revolution. The affairs of internal police and government were carefully retained by each separate State, which could, each for itself, enter upon the career of domestic reforms. But the States which were henceforth independent of Britain, were not independent of one another; the United States of America assumed powers over war, peace, foreign alliances, and commerce."

As he supposed that New York would be the next object of attack by the British, Washington transferred his army to that place immediately after his occupation of Boston. He had not long to wait, for in June, Admiral Lord Howe entered New York bay with a formidable fleet and 30,000 troops, consisting principally of German mercenaries hired by the King of England. The troops were landed on Staten Island, and preparations made for attacking the city of New York. Lord Howe issued a proclamation to the people of America, offering a free pardon to all who would lay down their arms and accept the king's clemency; but the proclamation produced no effect whatever upon the patriots, who were convinced that they could expect but a poor regard for their rights and liberties at the hands of King George.

Washington's force was vastly inferior to that of the enemy in every respect. He was compelled to divide it, and to place a portion of it on Long Island, in order to cover the approaches to the city of New York. The force on Long Island was attacked and defeated by the British on the 27th of August, 1776, and compelled to abandon the island. The enemy followed up their successes, and finally obliged Washington to give up Manhattan Island and the lower Hudson. Disasters now fell thickly upon the Americans, and by the close of the year Washington had been driven across the Delaware,

and had with him less than 4000 half-starved and miserably equipped troops. The British had by this time taken possession of the island of Rhode Island, and had made a descent upon Baskingridge, New Jersey, and had captured General Charles Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the Colonies seemed so desperate that the people generally began to abandon the hope of liberty and apply themselves to the task of making their peace, individually, with the royal authorities. Influenced by this state of affairs, Sir William Howe, the British Commander-in-Chief, refrained from making a vigorous effort to follow up his antagonist and crush him.

At this hour, when everything was so gloomy, Washington was calm and hopeful. He had expected reverses, and they did not dismay him. He did what lay in his power to cheer and encourage the little band of heroes who remained faithful to him, and watched the enemy with sleepless vigilance, and at length discovered an opportunity for striking a powerful blow in behalf of his country. Perceiving that the advanced wing of the English army occupied an exposed position at Trenton, New Jersey, he crossed the Delaware with his army, in open boats, in the midst of snow and ice, on the night of the 25th of December, and falling suddenly upon the enemy at daybreak the next morning, completely routed them, capturing 1000 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms, 6 brass field pieces, and 4 standards. On the night of the 26th, he recrossed the Delaware, and returned to his camp in Pennsylvania. On the 3d of January, 1777, he again defeated a strong British detachment at Princeton, New Jersey, and in a short while had cleared that State almost entirely of the enemy.

These victories, so brilliant and so audacious, completely startled the British, who had believed the war virtually over in the North, and aroused, as if by magic, the drooping spirits of the Americans. Congress, which had remained unmoved by the disasters of 1776, now inaugurated a series of more vigorous measures than had yet been determined upon. Washington was invested with almost dictatorial. powers; troops were ordered to be enlisted for three years, instead of one year, which was the term of the first levies; a central government was established, and a constitution, known as the "Articles of Confederation," was adopted by the States (Maryland did not ratify these articles until the next year); and agents were sent to foreign countries to procure the recognition of the independence of the United States.

When the campaign of 1777 opened, the prospects of the country

had so far improved that Washington found himself at the head of an army of 7000 men. Sir William Howe made repeated efforts to bring on a general engagement, but Washington skilfully avoided it, and the British General finally withdrew his army from New Jersey, and occupied Staten Island. Soon after this, he sailed with 16,000 men for the Chesapeake, and, landing at Elk River, in Maryland, advanced through Delaware towards Philadelphia, which was the seat of the Federal Government. Washington endeavored to check the progress of the enemy on the Brandywine, September 11th, but was defeated with a loss of 1000 men. The British occupied Philadelphia a few days later, and Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On the 4th of October, Washington made a vigorous attack upon the British force at Germantown, 7 miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with severe loss. This event closed the campaign in the Middle States.

In the North, the American forces had been more successful. General Burgoyne, with 7000 regular troops and a considerable force of Canadians and Indians, entered the United States from Canada during the summer of 1777, and advanced as far as Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. From this point a strong detachment was sent to Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the stores collected there by the Americans. This force was routed with a loss of 800 men, by the militia of New Hampshire and Vermont, under General Stark. The battle occurred at Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777. Burgoyne then advanced towards Saratoga, New York, making his way through the woods until he reached the vicinity of that place, when he was met by the American army, under General Gates, to whom the command of the Northern department had been recently assigned. An indecisive battle was fought between the two armies on the 19th of September, and a second and more decisive engagement occurred on the 7th of October, on nearly the same ground. Burgoyne was considerably worsted, and endeavored to return to Canada, but finding his retreat cut off, surrendered his entire army to the American forces, upon favorable terms, on the 17th of October.

This victory, the most important of the war, greatly elated the Americans and their friends in Europe, while it depressed the Tories or loyalists in America to an equal degree. It advanced the bills of the Continental Congress, and had the effect of inducing the French Government, which had secretly encouraged and aided the Colonies. from the first, to recognize the independence of the States, and in