THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPEDIA.

LTE-BOAT, a boat adapted to live" in a stormy sea, with a view to the saving of

life from shipwreck. Its qualities must be buoyancy, to avoid foundering when a sea is shipped; strength to escape destruction from the violence of waves, from a rocky beach, or from collision with the wreck; facility in turning; and a power of righting when capsized.

A melancholy wreck at Tynemouth, in Sept., 1789, suggested to the subscribers to the South Shields news-room, who had witnessed the destruction of the crew one by one, that some special construction of boat might be devised for saving life from stranded vessels. They immediately offered a premium for the best form of life-boat; and the first boat built with the express object of saving life was that constructed on this occasion by Mr. Henry Greathead. It was of great strength, having the form of the quarter of a spheroid, with sides protected and rendered buoyant within and without by the superposition of layers of cork. So useful was it in the first twenty-one years after its introduction that 300 lives were saved through its instrumentality in the mouth of the Tyne alone. Mr. Greathead received the gold medals of the society of arts and royal humane society, £1200 from parliament in 1802, and a purse of 100 guineas from Lloyd's, the members of which society also voted £2,000 to encourage the building of life-boats on different parts of the coast. Although various other life-boats were invented from time to time, Greathead's remained the general favorite until about the year 1851, and many of his construction are still to be seen on different points of the coast. They failed, however, occasionally; and several sad mishaps befell the crews of life-boats, especially in the case of one at South Shields, in which twenty pilots perished. Upon this the

duke of Northumberland offered a prize for an improved construction, and numerous designs were submitted, a hundred of the best of which were exhibited in 1851. Mr. James Beeching of Yarmouth obtained the award; but his boat was not considered entirely satisfactory, and Mr. R. Peake, of her majesty's dockyard at Woolwich, was intrusted with the task of producing a life-boat which should combine the best qualities of the different inventions. His efforts were very successful, and the national life-boat institution adopted his model as the standard for the boats they should thereafter establish on the coasts.

A section of Mr. Peake's life-boat is shown above, lengthwise through the keel. The five places indicated thus: A, A, are the thwarts on which the rowers sit; BB, a water-tight deck, raised sufficiently above the bottom of the boat to be above the level of the sea when the boat is loaded; Č, C, are air-tight chambers running along each side, and occupying from 3 to 4 ft. at each end: the buoyancy afforded by these more than suffices to sustain the boat when fully laden, even if filled with water. To diminish the liability to capsize in a heavy sea, the life-boat has great beam (breadth) in proportion to her length, viz., 8 ft. beam to 30 length. In addition, the bottom is almost flat. As in her build it has been found convenient to dispense with cross-pieces, some means are required to preserve the rigidity of the whole structure amid the buffetings of a tempest. To achieve this, and also to serve the purposes of light ballast, Mr. Peake fills the space between the boat's bottom and the water-tight deck (BB) with blocks, tightly wedged together, of cork and light hard wood, D, D. These would form a false bottom, were a rent made in the outer covering, and, by their comparative weight, counteract in some degree the top-heaviness induced by the air-vessels, which are entirely above the waterline (H). This arrangement would be insufficient to maintain the equilibrium of the

Life.

boat, however, and especially under sail, so Mr. Peake has added a heavy iron keel (E) of from 4 to 8 cwt., which effectually keeps the boat straight. Some builders object to this iron ballast: the Liverpool and Norfolk boats take out their plugs, and preferably admit water until steadiness is secured; but Mr. Peake has an additional object in viewthat of causing the boat to immediately right itself if turned upside down, as the best boats sometimes will be in heavy gales. It will be noticed that the ends of the boat rise above the center 1 to 2 feet. This, for one thing, facilitates turning, as the pivot on which her weight rests is shortened; for another, if she capsizes and is thrown bottom up, these raised caissons are sufficient to sustain her by their buoyancy. So long, then, as she floats precisely in an inverted state, she will be steady; but the slightest motion to either side-which, of course, in practice ensues instantly-throws the heavy keel off the perpendicular, in which its center of gravity was exactly over the line between bow and stern, and the boat must immediately right itself. There is a covered trough over the keel to contain the tackle, sails, etc., when not in use; in service, it is also useful to receive any water that may penetrate among the cork and wooden chocks beneath the water-tight deck: this leakage is at times considerable when the outer skin of the boat has sustained damage. The trough may be fitted with a small hand-pump, to enable one of the sitters to clear it out when necessary.

Perhaps the most beautiful contrivance in the life-boat is that for discharging the water which she ships. This consists of 6 relieving tubes, G, each 6 in. in diameter, passing through the deck, B, the ballast, D, and the bottom. The tubes, which are near the center of the boat, 3 on each side, have at the bottom a valve opening outwards. As the deck, B, is always above the water-level, any water in the boat necessarily flows out through these tubes, so that if a wave bursts over her, and completely fills the boat, the relieving tubes free her, and she is empty again in a few minutes. The greater the height of water within, the faster will it run out. The advantages of the life boat may be thus summed up. The air-chambers and the light ballast render sinking impossible; the keel nearly prevents capsizing, and rectifies it, if it does happen; while the relieving tubes effectually clear off any water that finds its way within. With such precautions, the safety of the crew appears almost assured, and, in fact, loss of life in a life-boat is a very rare occurrence.

The boat is kept on a truck-of considerable strength, as the life-boat weighs two tons-close to the beach, and is drawn to the water's edge when required; the crew are trained to their work, and, it need not be added, are among the hardiest of seamen. Ordinary life-boats are rowed by 8 or 12 oars (of the best fir) double banked; but for small stations, where it would be difficult to collect so many men at short notice, smaller boats are made, rowing six oars single banked.

The importance of the life-boat in saving life can scarcely be over-estimated. Hundreds of vessels have their crews rescued through its use every year; and as the national life-boat institution obtains funds, this invention is being gradually extended all round the coast of the United Kingdom, while foreign nations have not been remiss in thus protecting their shores.

The Royal National Life-boat Institution, after an unrecognized existence for several years, was formally incorporated in 1824. Its objects are to provide and maintain in efficient working order life-boats of the most perfect description on all parts of the coast; to provide, through the instrumentality of local committees, for their proper management, and the occasional exercise of their crews; to bestow pecuniary rewards on all who risk their lives in saving, or attempting to save, life on the coast, whether by means of its own or other boats, and honorary rewards, in the form of medals, to all who display unwonted heroism in the noble work. It is supported entirely by voluntary contributions. It saves about 900 lives annually, and is therefore eminently worthy of support. In 1875 it expended £36,136 on life-boat establishments, pecuniary rewards (£3,289), etc. The society has now a fleet of 271 life-boats stationed all round the coast. The Coxswains of the boats alone are paid at the rate of about £8 a year. The members of the crew are paid for each service performed. From its formation up to the end of 1875, the society was instrumental in saving 23,789 lives, and gave rewards in cash to the extent of £48,000, besides 92 gold and 871 silver medals. See LIFE-SAVING SERVICE.

The size of a common life-boat renders it inconvenient for stowage on shipboard. To obviate this, the rev. E. L. Berthon, of Fareham, invented a collapsing boat, which is readily expanded, possesses great strength, and at the same time occupies comparatively little space when out of use. Its sides are connected by various hinges. This boat is extensively employed for ocean steamships.

LIFE-ESTATE, in English law, is an estate or interest in real property for a life. The life may be either that of the owner or of some third party, in which latter case it is called an estate pur autre vie. Life-estates in lands are classed among freeholds (q.v.). The tenant for life has certain rights in regard to the uses of the estate. He is entitled to cut wood to repair fences, to burn in the house, etc. He cannot open a mine on the estate, but, if it was already opened, he is entitled to carry it on for his own profit. Lifeestates are created by deed, but there are certain estates created by law, as courtesy (q. v.), dower (q.v.), tenancy in tail after possibility of issue extinct. As to Scotland, see LIFE-RENT.

LIFE-GUARDS, the two senior regiments of the mounted portion of the body guard of the British sovereign and garrison of London. They took their origin in two troops of horse-grenadiers raised respectively in 1693 and 1702: these troops were reduced in 1783, and reformed as regiments of life-guards. Although usually employed about the court and metropolis, the life-guards are not exempt from the liability to foreign service when required, having distinguished themselves in the Peninsula and at Waterloo. The men are all six feet high and upwards, armed with sword and carbine, wear knee-boots, leather breeches, red coats, and steel helmets. They also wear steel cuirasses, the utility of which is considered very doubtful. With this unwieldy armor, they require powerful horses, which are uniformly black. The two regiments comprise 868 men, with 550 horses; their pay and personal allowances amount to about £50,000.

LIFE INSURANCE. See INSURANCE.

LIFE MORTARS AND ROCKETS. When a life-boat is not at hand, or a raging sea and a shoal coast render its use impracticable, a distressed ship may often receive help from shore, provided the distance be not too great for the throwing of a rope. A small rope may draw a thicker, and that a hawser, and the hawser may sustain a slinging apparatus for bringing the crew on shore. For short distances, capt. Ward's heaving-stick has been found useful: it is a piece of stout cane 2 ft. long, loaded at one end with 2 lbs. of lead, and at the other attached to a thin line. It is whirled round vertically 2 or 3 times, and then let go; but it cannot be relied on for more than 50 yards. Kites of various kinds have been employed, but are not found to be certain enough in action. The firing by gunpowder of some kind of missile, with a line or rope attached to it, is the method which has been attended with most success. In 1791 sergt. Bell, of the royal artillery, devised a mode of firing a shot and line from a distressed ship to the shore. It was afterwards found to be more practically useful to fire from the shore to the ship. In 1807 capt. Manby invented his life-mortar (see MANBY). His mortar was an ordinary 54-in. 24-pounder cohorn, fixed at a certain angle in a thick block of wood. The missile discharged from it was a shot with curved barbs, something like the flukes of an anchor, to catch hold of the rigging or bulwarks of a ship. How to fasten the shot to the rope was at first a difficulty: chains were not found to answer; but at length strips of raw-hide were found suitable. To assist in descrying the exact position of a distressed ship on a dark night, in order to aim the mortar-rope correctly, Manby used a chemical composition as a firework, which would shine out in brilliant stars when it had risen to a certain height. A third contrivance of his for replacing the shot by a shell filled with combustibles, in order to produce a light which would render the rope visible to the crew, was not so successful.

Many variations have been made in the line-throwing apparatus. Col. Boxer has recently substituted a bolt for the shot, with four holes at the end; fuses thrust into these holes shed a light which marks the passage of the bolt through the air. Trengrove's rocket-apparatus, invented in 1821, consisted of an ordinary 8-oz. sky-rocket (see ROCKET). Certain practical difficulties, however, affected it, and it did not come much into use. In 1832 Dennett's apparatus was invented. It nearly resembled the old skyrocket, but with an iron case instead of a paper one, and a pole 8 ft. long instead of a mere stick; it weighed 23 lbs., was propelled by 9 lbs. of composition, and had a range of 250 yards. A ship's crew having been saved by the aid of this rocket at Bembridge, in the isle of Wight, the board of customs caused many of the coastguard stations to be supplied with the apparatus in 1834. Carte's apparatus, brought forward in 1842, depended on the use of a Congreve rocket (see ROCKET) instead of an ordinary skyrocket. It does not appear that this apparatus was ever adopted by the authorities. Mr. Dennett next sought to improve the power of his apparatus, by placing two rockets side by side, attached to the same stick; and it certainly did increase the range to 400 yards; but as the simultaneous and equal action of the rockets could not be always insured, the scheme was abandoned. Col. Delvigne, of the French army, invented a life-arrow, to be fired from an ordinary musket. It is a stick of mahogany, shaped something like a billiard-cue; the thicker end presses on the powder; while the thinner end, loaded with lead, is fitted with loops of string; a line or thin rope is attached to the loops, and the thin end of the stick projects beyond the barrel. The jerk, when the arrow or stick is fired, causes the loops to run down the stick to the thick end; this action has an effect like that of a spring, preventing the stick from darting forward so suddenly as to snap the line. The apparatus will send an arrow of 18 oz. to a distance of 80 yards, with a mackerel line attached. Another French contrivance, Tremblay's rocket with a barbed head, was soon adopted for the emperor's yacht; but as it is to be fired from the ship to the shore, it partakes of the same defects as sergt. Bell's original invention.

The most effective apparatus yet invented is col. Boxer's. Finding that Dennett's parallel rockets on one stick do not work well, he succeeded after many trials in a mode of placing two rockets in one tube, one behind the other. The head is of hard wood; there is a wrought-iron case, with a partition between the two rockets. When fired, the foremost rocket carries the case and the attached line to its maximum distance, and the rearmost rocket then gives these a further impetus. The effect is found to be greater than if the two rockets were placed side by side, and also greater than if the quantity of composition for the two rockets were made up into one of larger size. The rocket is

Ligature.

that under consideration. In the meantime the U. S. government had frequently had the life-saving question under consideration. As early as 1807 an effort was made to organize a coast survey, but it was unsuccessful; and it was not until 1832 that this most important department of the government was finally established; being followed by the organization of the lake survey in the hands of the engineer corps of the U. S. army. In 1848 congress appropriated $10,000 to provide surf-boats and organize a lifesaving service for the coast of New Jersey. With this sum eight buildings, suitably appointed, were erected; and when, in 1849, congress appropriated $20,000 for the general purpose, a similar number of buildings was erected on the coast of Long island, and six additional ones on that of New Jersey. In 1850, $20,000 more, appropriated by congress, enabled the establishment of stations at other points along the coast of the Atlantic and the gulf, provided with life-boats and other material. In 1852 the reformation of the light-house system gave a great impetus to the movement towards a suitable lifesaving service; a system which now operates 1336 lights on the sea-coast and inland shores, besides fog-signals, buoys, and other machinery. In the two years following 1852 congress appropriated $42,500 to the purposes of life-saving, and the service, while being continued along the sea-coast, was also extended to the great lakes. In 1854 a law was passed by congress which increased the efficiency of this service, and from that time slight improvements continued to be made. But it was not until 1871 that the present system may be said to have been fairly organized. On April 20 in that year, congress appropriated $200,000, and the service was reorganized, under the general direction of Mr. Sumner I. Kimball, the present (1885) superintendent. New stations were appointed and provided; the efficiency of the personnel of the service was improved; and a suitable commission decided upon the selection of appliances for life-saving, which were adopted and procured. In 1873 the limits of this service were broadened, the sum of $100,000 being appropriated by congress for this purpose. Finally, by the act of June 20, 1874, congress perfected its work. This act authorized the arrangement of the life-saving stations into complete stations, life-boat stations, and houses of refuge; created new districts with salaried officials; established a system of honors in the bestowal of medals; and arranged for the tabular collection of statistics displaying the efficiency of the service, and directing attention to places requiring protection at its hands. The stormsignal department of the signal service was now connected with the life-saving stations, through the use of an appropriation by congress of $30,000 specifically for that purpose. The record of this season showed how admirably the service had been adapted to the purpose for which it had been organized: 1165 lives were saved on the three coasts covered by its operations, while only two were lost. The years following were marked by constant and marked improvement in the scope and the working of the service. A valuable code of signals to enable vessels in danger to communicate with the stations was adopted in 1878; a line of telegraph between capes Henry and Hatteras, and in the vicinity of the stations on the North Carolina coast, connecting with the head-quarters of the signal service in Washington, was applied to the uses of the life-saving service; and preparations were made which resulted in the adaptation of a system of telephones to the same purpose at twelve of the stations on that coast. The act of congress of June 18, 1878, organized the life-saving service into a distinct department; it having been previously associated with the revenue marine. This act also extended the annual term of service of the crews, doubled the pay of station-keepers, and authorized compensation for the voluntary life-boat service which had been established on the lakes.-The scene of the labors of the life-saving service covered, in 1871-72, the coast of Long island and New Jersey; the seasons of 1872-74, that of cape Cod in addition to these; the season of 1874-75, the coasts of New England, Long island, New Jersey, and the coast from cape Henry to cape Hatteras; season of 1875-76, coasts of New England, Long island, New Jersey, coast from cape Henlopen to cape Charles, and that from cape Henry to cape Hatteras; season of 1876-77, all the foregoing, with the addition of Florida and the lake coast; season of 1877-78, the coast of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode island and Long island, New Jersey, cape Henlopen to cape Charles, cape Henry to cape Hatteras, eastern coast of Florida, lake coast, and Pacific coast; 1878-79, same as the last. Following is a general summary of disasters which have occurred within the scope of live-saving operations from Nov. 1, 1871 (date of introduction of present sys. tem), to close of fiscal year ending June 30, 1884:

Of the number of lives lost, 183 were at the disasters to the U. S. steamer Huron, Nov. 24, 1877, and that of the steamer Metropolis, Jan. 29, 1878.—At the close of the fiscal year