the rod. Electrify the glass rod and present to the electroscope. The leaves of the loop spread because they are both charged with the same kind of electricity (+), and like electricities repel. Now present the electrified rubber or sealing wax and the leaves collapse because unlike electricities attract. Charge the electroscope either or —, then bring the electrified paper in experiment 35 to the knob to see whether the paper is + or Try a varnished ruler or a feather duster for electricity. Note the kind in each.

case.

Exp. 38. Electricity Produces Motion.

Suspend in a horizontal position by a thread a light 3 foot ruler. Electrify either the glass or rubber and hold near the end of the ruler. The ruler will follow the electrified object round and round. By holding it alternately above and below the end of the ruler it may be made to rock up and down through a distance of a foot or more. A wood splinter may take the place of the ruler.

Exp. 39.

Make a paper cylinder 2 or 3 inches long and 2 inches in diameter. Electrify the rubber or sealing wax and by holding over the cylinder it may be made to roll

back and forth at will. Remember to keep the rubber or glass electrified by frequent rubbing as the air conducts the electricity away rapidly.

Exp. 40.

Electrify either the glass or rubber and hold it over small pieces of paper or pith from dry cornstalks and notice how they are attracted and repelled. Explain.

Exp. 41.

Suspend by a silk thread 18 inches long a pith ball size of a small marble. The ball should be carefully rounded and will work better if covered with light tinfoil. Bring near it the electrified ruler or glass and note how it is first attracted, then repelled. What law applies here? When repelled by the glass bring near it the rubber or sealing wax and note effect. What law applies in this case? Suspend two pith balls and note how they repel each other when electrified. Why? The pith balls may be used instead of the electroscope to detect the presence and kind of electricity.

Exp. 42. Struck by Lightning. After rubbing the glass or sealing wax briskly present to the ear or nose. The spark you receive. is a genuine stroke of lightning and the report is a clap of thunder.

THE TEACHING OF DRAWING.

BY LANGDON S. THOMPSON.

Question 1-Why barren of results?

Is it barren of good results everywhere? We think there are places where the results in drawing compare very favorably with those from the teaching of other subjects, considering the time devoted to it. Where the results are barren one or two reasons may be given.

1. The time is usually too limited. The average time given to drawing throughout the country is not much more than an hour per week, but for comparison, we will say one hour and a half per week. The average yearly time of schools is not eight months, but let us say 36 weeks. Here, at the most liberal allowance, we have 54 hours per year, or eleven school days; or below the High School 88 days, or 18 weeks, or 4 months and a half. What could we do with any other subject in that length of time? Most critics think we ought to make artists in that time.

How are artists made?

(a) By selecting for students young people, not children, of the best natural ability, those who have talent or genius. These are placed in an Art School with art surroundings, with experienced artists for teachers. Under these most favorable circumstances they study. and practice for several years, and yet most of them leave the art

school never to be heard from, except perhaps as draughtsmen, or in the humbler walks of mechanical art.

(b) As to knowledge and skill the ordinary teachers are not so well prepared to teach drawing as they are to teach other subjects, and too many of the special drawing teachers do not know how to teach, although they may be able to draw a little. Being specialists, they are often without general education, and they are apt to be narrow in their views and unable to commend their work to the good common sense of intelligent superintendents. Question 2-Purpose.

1. The general purpose of drawing in the common schools is that of all education, to awaken and make responsive the sensibilities, to enlighten and expand the intellect, to strengthen the will in its choice of right conduct. It affects the intellect and the will chiefly through the sensibilities. The child loves first and learns and acts because of that love. Emotion is antecedent to will and instruction must reach the intellect and the will over the bridge of interest. A liking for beauty of form, beauty of truth and beauty of conduct, is an evolutionary germ which may be arrested in its growth if neglected, or by drawing and art study it may be developed into a true ethical product, a choice of right action. from the highest motives.

2. The special aim of drawing in the common schools should be to teach the conventionalities of the subject, together with such a knowledge of underlying principles and such an amount of practice as will enable the pupils to use elementary drawing as a language to express simple space relations, but not to the degree required by a professional artist, designer, draughtsman, architect, or machinist.

The special aim in the primary and intermediate grades should be to get hold of the conventionalities of drawing and the free use of the hand and arm in drawing elementary forms.

In the grammar grades these conventionalities and the mastery of elementary forms should be a basis for further developing the mind so as to distinguish between a judgment concept of the mind. and a visual percept. Not till this is done can there be any conscious and intelligent drawing from objects. Also the grammar grades are the place for developing the elementary principles of Decorative Design, as derived from nature and historical ornament. Also in the upper grammar grades the elements of mechanical drawing may be presented.

Question 3-Material.

1. Good examples of different kinds of drawing, or drawings of different kinds of objects, to help the pupils to form ideals of good

work, and to show them how skilled artists handle their materials and produce desired results. Such examples may include reproductions of drawings done by the old masters as well as by modern artists.

Of course pencils, paper, books, crayon, charcoal, brushes, ink and colors will all be needed at various stages of progress.

2. Approved models, beautiful in form and color. These should include geometrical solids as well as art objects of approved design and color.

3. Natural forms.

METHOD.

The method should be the same as for other school arts, as reading, writing, singing, etc. The method must be founded on good common sense, psychological principles and experience.

The method cannot be that of the Art Studio. The aim is not the same, the pupils have not the same motives, nor talents, the teachers are not artists, and the time to be devoted to drawing is too limited, all of which will exclude the Art Studio method.

The method cannot be that of the workshop, for reasons similar to those stated above.

The method should be both inductive and deductive, analytical and synthetical, and it must include the developing of principles as well as sufficient practice to fix the principles in mind.

To name the material and the method for each grade would be to make a complete course of study and an accompanying syllabus of work, which I suppose is not contemplated in the answers solicited. Question 4-Drawing from the flat.

It is profitable for the purpose of learning the conventionalities of drawing, such as good handling in representing textures, etc. If the copies are masterpieces, the copying of them is valuable in the same way that it is profitable to read and study gems of literature. In the upper grades such copying might be confined mostly to the copying of approved historic ornament.

Drawing from a copy without understanding the meaning and use of the lines as used, is to be condemned for the same reason that reading or committing to memory a poem, the words of which were not understood, should be condemned. A reasonable amount of copying is not injurious provided the student fully understands the reasons for drawing each line as he finds them.

DRAWING OF TYPES.

Drawing from copy, however well understood, is not enough. There must be independent drawing from objects. But what objects?

We say very considerable drawing must be done from geometrical

If

solids, or so called type forms. objects for drawing are taken in a haphazard way, there will be no good opportunity to teach the principles of model and object drawing. Without the inductive development of principles the subject of drawing loses most of its educational value. The type-solids, by eliminating the distracting details of ordinary objects, brings us directly to the apprehension of the underlying principle.

CONVENTIONAL DESIGNS.

These are also desirable. When the children are led to analyze such designs they learn how others have proceeded to construct them, and they learn at least some of the principles of ornamental art. This is important in an educational sense, even if the pupils do not have any great constructive ability themselves, or do not intend to become designers. Every one in civilized countries must either produce or select decorative ornament. stated previously the drawing of conventional designs or patterns may be confined to the drawing of historical ornament.

As

After writing the above it occurred to me that the question might be the designing of conventional patterns, instead of, as I have interpreted it, the drawing of such designs. The reasons for designing such patterns are more forcible perhaps than for the mere copying them.

ROUGH SKETCHING.

If by rough sketching is meant the rapid laying out of the proportions and relations of the different parts of a drawing before working up the details, we should say it is very desirable to help direct the attention of pupils to the large parts of a drawing, to see objects as wholes.

If rough sketching is the result of carelessness, or a disposition to avoid work, or a hatred of details, it does not seem so commendable.

POINT ANd Line DRAWING.

Yes, especially in the lowest grades. Three-fourths of all beginners as they come to us in the common schools have vague and indefinite ideas about space, shape, distance, etc. These must be clarified by exercises that have but one possible interpretation. Hence, at times, many times in fact, exercises should be given that require dots and lines to be put in exact places by means of the unaided eye and hand.

COLOR WORK.

Color work with the brush is profitable to the extent of learning the principal prismatic colors, their tints, shades, and hues, and their effects on one another when brought in contact. Harmony of color is of importance to every one. In the lower grades, colored papers are very useful in showing the exact colors, but in some schools, especially in the upper grades, a great

deal of time is wasted in cutting and pasting colored papers. Better use the brush and water colors.

Charcoal is useful in a special way, but it is too coarse and dirty for general use by children in large classes.

Question 5-Abuse of natural objects.

Yes, the drawing of natural objects is open to serious abuse. That of vagueness, of indefiniteness, of carelessness, of self-complacency. It is very easy for pupils, teachers and their friends to be deceived by the drawings pupils make, or think they make, from natural objects. If a child draws a leaf, a flower, an apple, a dog, a cat, so that the drawing looks something like any leaf, any flower, any apple, any dog, or any cat, the work is generally highly satisfactory to all, although the drawing may be entirely unlike the particular object before him. He and his friends think he has done much better than he really has. If the same pupil tries to draw a circle, and if the drawing is the least bit wrong, all can criticise it at a glance.

Of course we must have drawing from natural objects and much of it, but it must be in connection with other more exact work.

Drawing and nature work may be correlated much in the same way as language and history are. When history is studied that is the principal subject, and we only ask of