F = THE sixth letter in the Latin and English alphabets, corresponding to the Vau of the Hebrew, and the Digamma (q. v.) of the old Greek alphabet. See ALPHABET. F and v are called labio-dentals, from the organs employed in producing them; they belong to the class of consonants called Aspirates (q. v.), and bear the same relation to each other that exists between the and b. In Latin, f had a pecuunaspirated labials p liar sound, different from that of Greek , as we learn from Cicero and other Latin writers. What the sound was, we do not exactly know, but it approached to the nature of a strongly breathed h, as is indicated by the fact, that in the Sabine dialect it sometimes takes the place of h, as Sab. fircus Lat. hircus (a he-goat); and the Latins made use both of faba and haba for a bean.' This affinity is also shewn in modern Spanish, where h takes the place of the Latin f; as Lat. femina, Sp. hembra; fl becomes, in Spanish, l, as Lat. flamma Sp. llama. F, in English and other Teutonic tongues, corresponds to p in Greek and Latin; as Lat. and Gr. pater Eng. father; Gr. pod-, Lat. ped- Eng. foot; Lat. pisc- Eng. fish; Gr. pur Eng. fire; Lat. vulp-Eng. wolf. In some words, v takes the place in German of ƒ in English; as Ger. vater = Eng. father; Ger. vier Eng. four. In the Aberdeenshire dialect, f takes the place of wh, as fat for what; fup for whip. This seems to be a relic of the Teutonic pronunciation of w (= v), still to be observed in the Cockney pronunciation of vill for will, ven for when; but why the sharpening of the labial into ƒ should be confined to one circumscribed district of Scotland, and to the case of w followed by h, it is hard to say. = = = = = = = = = = = Fin Lat. and Greek becomes b in Eng.; as Gr. and Lat. fer- Eng. bear; Lat. frater Eng. brother. See Letter B. More remarkable are the interchanges between f and the series d, th, t. Lat. foris Gr. thura, Eng. door; Lat. fera Gr. ther, Eng. deer; Eng. red, Sans. ruthira, Gr. eruthros, Lat. rutilus, rufus, ruber. In Russian, Feodor, Afanasja Theodor, Athanasia. In words originally common to both Greek and Latin, the Greek is represented in Lat. by f; as Gr. φήμη = Lat. fama. But in spelling Greek words with Latin letters, the Romans, after the time of Cicero, were careful to represent o, not by f, which had a somewhat different power, but by ph. This mode of spelling words derived from Greek is still adhered to in English, German, and French, although the distinction in sound has long been lost sight of. The distinction began to disappear in the Latin itself in the time of the later Roman emperors, when inscriptions shew such spelling as Afrodite for Aphrodite; and this simplification is followed in modern Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. Ph is sometimes erroneously used in words having no connection with Greek; as Adolphus, for the Teutonic Adolf or Adalolf-i. e., 'noble wolf.' F, in Music, is the fourth note of the natural diatonic scale of C, and stands in proportion to C as 4 to 3, and is a perfect fourth above C as fundamental note. F major, as a key, has one flat at its signature-viz., B flat. F minor has four flats the same as A flat major, of which it is the relative minor. FAAM, or FAHAM (Angræcum fragrans), an orchid, native of India and the Mascarene Isles, of its leaves, which is owing to the presence of much prized in the East for the delightful fragrance Coumarin (q. v.), and resembles that of the Tonka Bean and of Vernal Grass. In the Isle of Bourbon, for pulmonary consumption and as a stomachic. an infusion of F. leaves is in great repute as a cure In France, it has been successfully employed, under the name of Isle of Bourbon Tea, as an expectorant, anti-spasmodic and stomachic. FABACEÆ. See LEGUMINOSÆ. son. FA'BER is the name of two artists, father and John F., the elder, was born in Holland, where he acquired a knowledge of the art of mezzotinto-engraving. Subsequently, he came to England, and died at Bristol, May 1721. His works do not exhibit much talent. The younger F., also called John, obtained, however, a high reputation as an engraver in mezzotinto. His principal works are the portraits of the Kit-Cat Club, and the Beauties of Hampton Court, several of which are executed with great freedom, vigour, and beauty. lived in London, where he is believed to have died in 1756. FABER, REV. GEORGE STANLEY, a learned and voluminous divine of the Anglican Church, was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber, and was born 25th October 1773. He entered University College, Oxford, in 1789, where he achieved a brilliant academical reputation. Before his 21st year, he was elected Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln College. In 1796, he took his degree of M.A.; was Bampton Lecturer for 1801, in which capacity he delivered the lectures subsequently published under the title of Hora Mosaica; and in 1805 became vicar of Stockton-on-Tees, in the county of Durham. After several changes, he received from Bishop Van Mildert, in 1832, the mastership of Sherburn Hospital, near the city of Durham, where he died 27th January 1854. F. wrote upwards of forty works, several of which, especially those upon prophecy, have enjoyed a very extensive popularity. All his writings are marked by 'strong masculine sense, extensive classical erudition, and a hearty love of hypothesis.' The principal are-The Genius and Object of the Patriarchal, the Levitical, and the Christian Dispensations (1823, 2 vols.); The Difficulties of Infidelity (1824); The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy (1828, 3 vols.); The Primitive Doctrine of Election (1836), reckoned by some critics the most valuable of all F.'s writings; The Primitive Doctrine of Justification (1837); and Eight Dissertations FABIUS-FABLIAU. upon the Prophetical Promises of a Mighty Deliverer going forth to anoint a king over them, he made use (1845, 2 vols.). of a fable proper. The peculiarity, therefore, of the structure of the fable consists in the transference to inanimate objects, or, more frequently, to the FA'BIUS, the name of one of the oldest and most illustrious patrician families of Rome. Three brothers of this name alternately held the office of consul for seven years (485-479 B. C.). In 479, the Fabii, under K. Fabius Vibulanus, migrated to the banks of the Cremera, a small stream that flows into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. Here, two years after, they were decoyed into an ambuscade by the Veientes, with whom they had been at war, and, with the exception of one member, who had remained at Rome, and through whom the race was perpetuated, the entire gens, consisting of 306 men, were put to the sword. The most eminent of the Fabii were Quintus Fabius Rullianus -supposed to have been the first who obtained for himself and his family the surname of Maximus -and his descendant, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, named Cunctator, the Delayer. The former was the most eminent of the Roman generals in the second Samnite war, and was twice dictator, and six times consul. The latter, who, in the course of his career, was five times consul, and twice censor, was elected dictator immediately after peculiar line of tactics which he observed in the second Punic war obtained for him the surname by which he is best known in history. Hanging on the heights like a thundercloud, to which Hannibal himself compared him, and avoiding a direct engagement, he tantalised the enemy with his caution, harassed them by marches and countermarches, and cut off their stragglers and foragers, while at the same time his delay allowed Rome to assemble her forces in greater strength. This policy -which has become proverbial as 'Fabian policy' -although the wisest in the circumstances, was neither appreciated in the camp nor at home; and shortly after, Marcus Minucius Rufus, Master of the Horse, was raised to an equal share in the dictator-Reineke Fuchs (q. v.), or the History of Reynard the ship, a position, however, which he occupied but for a short time. During his fifth consulship, Fabius recovered Tarentum, which had long been one of Hannibal's important positions. He died in 203 the defeat of the Romans at Trasimenus. The B. C. C. Fabius, surnamed Pictor, executed upon the walls of the temple of Salus-dedicated by the dictator C. Junius Brutus Bubulus in 302-the earliest Roman paintings of which we have any record; and his grandson, Q. Fabius Pictor, was the first writer of a Roman history in prose. FA'BLE (Lat. fabula) is a word of twofold signification. First, it is employed by some writers in a general sense to denote any fictitious narrative, as, for example, the incidents in an epic or dramatic poem. At one time also, when the myths of the Greeks and Romans were thought to be satisfactorily accounted for by regarding them as conscious inventions of the ancient poets and priests, it was customary to speak of them as fables, but this application of the term is now abandoned by scholars. See MYTHS. According to the second and more frequent signification of the word, it denotes a special kind of literary composition, either prose or verse, in which a story of some kind is made the vehicle for conveying a universal truth. It differs from a parable in this respect, that while the latter never transcends in conception the bounds of the probable or the possible, the former always and of necessity does. The story of the 'Good Samaritan' imagined by the Saviour, is a parable; if it was not true, it might have been, for it contains nothing either improbable or impossible; but when Jotham went up to the top of Mount Gerizim, and spoke to the men of Shechem about the trees Fox, stretches in some of its numerous primitive forms much further back. In later times, most nations have cultivated the fable with more or less success. We may mention among the English, Gay; among the Germans, Hagedorn and Gellert, and Lessing; among the Italians, Pignotti; and above all, among the French, La Fontaine, whose fables are remarkable for their arch and lively humour, their delicate sarcasm, their sagacity, and felicity of expression. Now, however, the fable has gone entirely out of fashion, and there seems little chance of its reappearance. FABLIAU, plur. FABLIAUX (from the Latin fabulari, fabellare, to speak or to tell), was the name given in the old French literature to a class of short metrical narratives, intended merely for recitation, and which had for their subject-matter the talk and news of the day in the middle ages. The narrator of such news was called a fableor (plur. fablière), in opposition to the chanteor, or singer proper, who composed poems not only for recitation, but also for singing. Besides the fabliaux, the department of the fableor embraced the Romans d'aventure (in short unstrophied couplets), usually called contes, whence their author or reciter also bore the name of conteur; and the dits, or sayings, the special cultivator of which was termed a diseur. As the fabliaux were fundamentally distinguished from the more genuine forms of poetry by the everyday character of their subject-matter, so the mode of treatment which their authors adopted was also more anecdotical, epigrammatic, and witty-the wit being richly spiced with scandal. They appear to have maintained FABRETTI-FABRICIUS. a sort of ironical and parodistic antagonism to the idealism of the epics of chivalry. In these fabliaux, the essential character of the French people manifested itself, and that opposition of the real to the ideal, of the understanding to the imagination, which, after the time of Francis I., began to characterise French literature generally. Thus they lashed not only the priesthood and the nobility in their actual degeneracy, but from the very character of their satire, they engendered a contempt for the religious-chivalric spirit itself, and for all ecclesiastical and knightly notions and ceremonies. The oldest fabliaux are not of French origin; they are a fruit of the Crusades, and were brought to France from the East, but they received a national colouring, and soon took root in the West. From them sprung the drama of France. One of the most fecund fablière was Rutebeuf, who flourished in the reigns of Louis IX. and Philippe III., whose works were published by Jubinal (2 vols., Paris, 1837). He was a true Parisian, and the prototype of Villon, La Fontaine, and Voltaire. The best collections of fabliaux and contes are those of Barbazan (3 vols., Paris, 1756), of Méon (2 vols., Paris, 1823), and of Jubinal (2 vols., Paris, 1839 1843). of the most admirable belonging to the school of Giotto. To the same period belongs a Madonna with Saints (now in the Berlin Museum). F. afterwards went to Venice, where he greatly increased his reputation by a picture of the bloody engagement between the fleet of the Republic and that of the Emperor Barbarossa off the heights of Pirano. The Venetian senate was so delighted with the piece, that it conferred on the fortunate artist the dignity of a patrician, and a pension of a ducat per diem for life. Unhappily, this work has perished. Pope Martin V. now called F. to Rome, and employed him, along with Vittore Pisanello, in adorning the church of San Giovanni Laterano. As his share of the work, he painted various incidents in the life of John the Baptist, five prophets, and portraits of Pope Martin himself and ten cardinals. He died, while engaged on this building, some time after 1450. F.'s pictures indicate a cheerful and joyous nature. He had quite a childlike love of splendour and rich ornamentation, but is never extravagant or excessive in his colouring. FABRICIUS, or FABRIZIO, GIROLAMO, commonly named from his birthplace F. AB ACQUAPENDENTE, a celebrated anatomist and surgeon, was born in 1537, and died in 1619. He was the son of FABRETTI, RAFFAELE, a distinguished anti-humble parents, who, notwithstanding their poverty, quary and archæologist, was born at Urbino 1618, sent him to the university of Padua, where, in and was attracted at an early period to anti- addition to the usual instruction in the classics, he quarian studies by the great classical remains of studied anatomy and surgery under the celebrated Rome. Under Pope Alexander VII., he became papal Fallopius with such success, that on the death of the treasurer, and subsequently was appointed chan- latter in 1562, F. was appointed to fill the vacant cellor to the papal embassy at Madrid. A residence professorship. He continued to hold this office for of 13 years in Spain enabled him to explore all the nearly half a century, during which period his high antiquities of the kingdom, and to carry his studies character for eloquence, general erudition, and to a point which rendered indispensable his return professional knowledge, attracted students from to Rome, the great parent fount of ancient learning. all parts of the civilised world to the university of He was there made judge; and under Innocent XII., Padua. Amongst these students was our countrybecame keeper of the papal archives of the castle of man Harvey (q. v.), who attended his prelections in St Angelo, a post which afforded the widest scope 1598, and who, as will be seen in our notice of his to his favourite pursuits. About this time, he wrote life, derived from F.'s observations on the valves of his two important works: De Aquis et Aquaductibus the veins the first clue to his great discovery. He Veteris Roma (4 vols., 1680, reprinted with notes was a most laborious investigator of nature; and and additions in 1788), and Syntagma de Columna we find him comparing and contrasting the same Trajani (Rome, 1683). His treatise entitled Inscrip- organ in man, and in several of the lower animals, on tionum Antiquarum Explicatio (1699) throws invalu- a more methodical plan than had been attempted by able light on the discoveries made by himself in the any of his predecessors. In this way he treated of catacombs; and his erudite investigations concerning the eye, the larynx, the ear, the intestinal canal, the the reliefs known as the Iliac Tables, and the grand development of the foetus, and many other subjects. subterranean canals of the Emperor Claudius, are The improvements which his knowledge of anatomy equally full of interest to science. His rare collec-enabled him to introduce into the practice of surgery tion of inscriptions, &c., is deposited in the ducal palace of Urbino. F. died in 1700. FABRIANO, a city of Italy, in the province of Macerata (formerly part of the Papal States), is situated at the eastern base of the Apennine range, 28 miles west of Macerata. It has a cathedral, and several convents, but is chiefly worthy of mention on account of its great paper manufactures, which were established in 1564. F. has also numerous tanneries and powder-mills, and manufactures of hats and cloth. Pop. 7030. FABRIANO, GENTILE DA, an Italian painter, who flourished in the early part of the 15th century; He was born-it is not exactly known when-at Fabriano, and received his first instructions from his father, who appears to have been a man of superior culture, as he taught his son the elements of physics and mathematics. F.'s first teacher in art was, it is supposed, Allegrette de Nuzio. Subsequently, he went to Florence, and studied under Fiesole. Among his earliest works of note is a fresco of the Madonna in the cathedral of Orvieto. In 1423, he painted an Adoration of the Kings' for the church of the Holy Trinity in Florence. This picture is one were very great; and his Opera Chirurgica, which FABRICIUS, JOH. CHRISTIAN, a Danish entomologist, born at Tondern, January 7, 1745, and died at Kiel in 1807. He studied at Copenhagen, FABRONI-FACTOR. FA'CET, a term employed to denote the plane surfaces of crystals, or those artificially cut upon precious stones. FACIAL ANGLE. See ANGLE. Edinburgh, Leyden, and Freyberg, and finally went Ciceronianus. F.'s Latin epistles and orations are to Upsala, to attend the classes of Linnæus. A remarkable for the Ciceronian elegance of their warm friendship was cemented between master and style, and his notices on several philosophical pupil, and throughout his life, F. was zealously writings of Cicero for their solidity, clearness, and employed in developing and applying the ideas taste. and method of the great Swede. În 1775, F. was appointed to the chair of Natural History at the university of Kiel, and from that time he devoted himself to the prosecution of his entomological studies, and to the fuller development of a system of classification of insects, based upon the structure of the mouth. Although his system has been found inapplicable to many families of insects, the observations on which it was based have tended materially to the extension of this branch of science. The Systema Entomologia (Copenh. 1775), in which F. expounded his views, constituted a new era in the history of entomology, while his Genera Insectorum (Kiel, 1776), Mantissa Insectorum (Copenh. 1787), and Entomologia Systematica (Copenh. 1792), opened hitherto unexplored fields of inquiry to the entomologist. F. was the author of several able treatises on the policy, statistics, and economy of Denmark, which were prepared by him in his capacity of councillor of state and Professor of Rural and Political Economy at Kiel. F.'s death was said to have been hastened by the grief which he experienced in consequence of the political misfortunes of his country. FABRO'NI, ANGELO, an excellent biographical writer, was born at Marradi, in Tuscany, 7th February 1732, educated at Faenza and Rome, and in 1773, was appointed tutor to the sons of Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany. He died 22d September 1803. His Vita Italorum Doctrina Excellentium qui Sæculo XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt (20 vols., Pisa, 1778-1805), is one of the best Italian works of its kind, and contains quite a treasure of information; while his Laurentii Medicei Vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1784), and Vita Magni Cosmi Medicei (2 vols., Pisa, 17881789), are reckoned model biographies. FAÇADE (Fr.), the exterior front or face of a building. This term, although frequently restricted to classic architecture, may be applied to the front elevation of a building in any style. It is, however, generally used with reference to buildings of some magnitude and pretensions; thus, we speak of the front of a house, and the façade of a palace. The back elevation of an important building is called the rear façade, in the same way as in England the back of a house is called the 'back front.' An edifice may have any number of façades when it shews a face or front in each direction. An elevation of the side of a building is called the lateral façade. The sides of a court or cortile are also called façades, and are distinguished as north, south, &c. façades. FACCIOLA'TI, JACOPO, an Italian philologist and critic, was born at Torreglia, not far from Padua, in 1682. He was educated in the religious seminary at Padua, where he became successively Professor of Theology, Professor of Philosophy, and Superintendent-general of the classes, or rector of the institution. F. directed his attention chiefly to the revival of the study of ancient literature, and with this object, brought out a new edition of the Lexicon Septem Linguarum, called, from its original author, the monk Ambrosius of Calepio, the Calepine Lexicon. He was assisted in this work by his pupil, Forcellini, to whom is mainly owing the conception of a totally new Latin dictionary; an arduous undertaking, which F. continued till his death in 1769, and which was afterwards completed by Forcellini in 1771. F. and Forcellini, assisted by several others, likewise published a new edition of Nizoli's Thesaurus FACILITY, in the legal terminology of Scotland, is a condition of mental weakness short of that which will justify Cognition (q. v.), but which calls for the protection of the law, which is exercised by means of a process called Interdiction (q. v.). The object of interdiction is to prevent the facile person from granting deeds to his own prejudice, and after it has taken place, he cannot contract without Even without the consent of his interdictors. interdiction, the deeds of a facile person, if to his prejudice, may be set aside, if there be proof of his having been circumvented or imposed on; and Erskine says that where lesion in the deed, and facility in the granter concur, the most slender circumstances of fraud or circumvention are sufficient to set a deed aside.'-B. iv. tit. 1, s. 27. See FRAUD, LESION, INSANITY. There is no corresponding term in English law, and the remedy of interdiction is unknown, but weakness of mind approaching to idiocy will of course form an important element in proving fraud. FACTOR, in Mathematics. The numbers 6 and 4, multiplied together, make 24; hence 6 and 4 are called factors of the product 24. Most numbers 12 = 3 x 4, or 2 x 6, or 2 × 2 × 3. Every product are products of two or more factors; thus 10 = 2 × 5; can be divided by any of its factors without remainder; a factor, therefore, is often called a divisor, or measure. 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, are all factors divisor above unity, such as 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . 23, &c., are called Prime Numbers (q. v.). or divisors of 24. Numbers that have no factor or FACTOR, in its most general sense, is the term applied to any one who is employed to do business for another. Factory differs from the mandate of the Roman law in not being gratuitous. In mercantile transactions, the sale of goods is generally effected either by factors or brokers, both of whom are agents, remunerated generally by a commission. But the powers of factors are higher than those of brokers, inasmuch as the former are intrusted with the possession of the goods, and authorised to sell them as if they were their own; whereas the latter have no possession or apparent ownership, but act not only really but ostensibly as agents. Factors frequently act on the principle of the del credere commission (q. v.), receiving, that is to say, a higher remuneration in consideration of undertaking to guarantee the solvency of the purchasers. At common law, a sale or other transaction by a factor was bad, if it was not fully warranted by the nature of the authority which he derived from his principal; but this doctrine has been modified by several statutes which have been passed for the protection of strangers dealing with persons intrusted with the possession of goods, the extent of whose authority they had no means of ascertaining. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 94, called the Factors' Act, it was provided that any person in possession of a bill of lading is to be deemed the true owner of the goods therein described, so far as to give validity to any contract or agreement made with him regarding them. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. enacts that if any factor shall, for his own benefit, and in violation of good faith, deposit or pledge any goods, or order for their delivery, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. In 1842, the FACTOR-FACTORIES. powers of 6 Geo. IV. c. 94 were defined and extended by 5 and 6 Vict. c. 39, which enacted that bona fide advances to persons intrusted with the possession of goods or documents of title, though known to be agents, should be protected; bona fide deposits in exchange were also protected, but it was provided that there should be no lien beyond the value of the goods given up. The agent's responsibility to his principal is not diminished, but it is provided that if he shall make consignments contrary to the instructions of his principal, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. In Scotland, the term factor is applied to an agent managing heritable estates for another, letting farms, drawing rents, and the like, in which sense it is nearly synonymous with the English steward, a term which, in Scotland, again, is employed to denote an agent whose powers are of a far more limited kind than those of a factor, and who generally acts under him. If a factor pay money into a bank on his own account, he takes the risk of the bank's failure. A factor cannot delegate his powers, but he may employ a third party to aid him in their discharge. He binds his principal to any engagement which he contracts within his powers. Factory may be recalled, and falls by the death of the principal; but actions already begun may go on, and those done in ignorance of the revocation or death are binding. Revocation is implied in the appointment of a new agent to do the same act. The mandate of factory subsists notwithstanding the supervening insanity of the mandant. Factors may be empowered to grant leases and pursue removings, but for these acts special powers are required. Writers to the Signet in Edinburgh, and writers in country towns, frequently act as factors for the neighbouring landed proprietors. But all the great landowners had formerly, and many of them still have, factors resident on their estates. See AGENT. FACTORIES are establishments where large numbers of persons co-operate in the production of some article of consumption, the principle of the division of labour being in all cases applied, and generally machinery to a greater or less extent. The factory-system is opposed to the practice of individual labour at the homes of the artisans. Every production of art requires a longer or shorter series of operations, often varying considerably in their nature. The hand-worker performs most of these himself; one and the same person makes the complete article. In a factory, every article goes through as many hands or machines as there are separate processes required; each workman performs only one, and that always the same, process. The chief advantages of this way of proceeding are the following: Loss of time is avoided in passing from one operation to another, a loss which is the greater, the greater the difference in the nature of the operation. The workman, confined to one thing, in itself usually simple, not only learns it sooner, but attains a quickness and skill that one distracted with a variety of operations can never attain; besides, the constant occupation with one kind of work leads the workman to light upon improvements in tools and machines so as to increase their rapidity of execution and their precision. As only few of the processes are very difficult, it is possible to turn to some account less skilful workmen, and even children, and to assign to each person that kind of work at which he is most effective. All parts of the work, too, that are quite uniform in the case of each article, can generally be done by machinery. Lastly, in factories, there is more opportunity of turning to advantage all kinds of refuse. A necessary consequence of these advantages is, that the cost of production is less on the factorysystem than in the other way; and more than that, the articles themselves, when of a nature adapted to this mode of production, are better, and of a uniformity otherwise unattainable. Wherever a comparatively homogeneous material has to be made into a large number of uniform articles, there the factory-system is in its proper place. The best examples are spinning, weaving, cloth-printing, pin and needle making, &c. But even in the manufac ture of complex articles composed of different kinds of material, the factory-system may be pursued with advantage whenever the number of the articles required is great, and the separate parts of such a kind that a great number can be made exactly alike. This is the case with watches, weapons, locks, &c. Such a manufacture divides itself into as many separate employments as there are parts in each article, and the putting together and adjusting forms another. The degree of complexity is carried still further in such cases as the manufacture of carriages, where operations of the most heterogeneous kind have to concur. In some cases, factories do not concern themselves with the putting together of the parts, but merely produce them for hand-workers and special professionists, as is the case in watch-making. In making clothes and shoes and the like, where each individual article requires special adaptation, factory work is not so suitable. How far it is advisable in any case to employ machinery, depends on the nature of the work, the cost of the machinery, the scale on which operations are to be carried on, &c. Nowhere have the factory-system and the employment of machinery been carried further than in America. In Cincinnati, for instance, one establishment in 1854 produced 200 dozen chairs a week, another 1000 bedsteads, most of the work being done by machinery; and one boot and shoe factory used 600 bushels of shoe-pegs. Even the killing of pigs is done on this grand scale, one establishment killing and pickling 12,000 hogs and 3000 oxen in a season. -Factories cannot succeed in great numbers except in localities where the population is sufficiently dense to afford a sufficient choice of hands, and also to cause a comparatively low rate of wages. Other conditions of a good locality for factory production are abundance of water-power or the presence of coal for steam power, nearness to the raw material, and good communications. While the rise and extension of the factory-system, when looked at from the point of view of material economics, must be pronounced a decided improvement, it cannot be denied that, socially and politically considered, it has its dark side. The greater the capital and the training necessary for carrying on an extensive establishment, the less prospect the workman has of ever raising himself to independence. The chasm that separates the mill-owner from his dependants is infinitely greater than that which exists between a master artisan and his journeymen. The hope of gradual advancement afforded in the last case supplies a powerful moral support and means of discipline; the impassable gulf in the other acts as a stumbling-block and temptation. Factory-workers are especially disposed to enter heedlessly into marriage, as they require to make no provision for a workshop, tools, and other outlay once necessary for entering life; while they have the prospect of the wife, and soon of the children, as contributors to the support of the family. It may, at all events, be affirmed, that the increase and accumulation in masses of the class called proletaires, who have no provision for a week but the labour of that week, is favoured by the factory-system. Moreover, the employment of wife 215 |