FAUSSE-BRAYE-FAUSTINA. Charlemagne cycle, thus finding the origin of the old Spanish and German poetry on the soil of France. F.'s views have, however, met with considerable opposition. FAUSSE-BRAYE, in Fortification, a low rampart encircling the body of a place, and raised about three feet above the level ground. This work has mostly been discarded by modern engineers, except when used in front of curtains, under the name of Tenailles (q. v.). The French engineers gave this title to the work, as an adaptation from the Italian term Fossa Brea, which had its origin from the fausse-braye being commonly in the ditch, in front of the main wall. The fausse-braye had the advantage of giving an additional tier of guns for defensive purposes; but the still greater disadvan-known appeared at Frankfort in 1588. Then came tage of affording facilities for the scaling of the parapet. FAUSSE RIVIERE (in English, False River) is a lake of Louisiana, United States, which deserves notice chiefly as an index of the physical character of the country. Till about a century and a half ago, it was a channel of the Mississippi-a fact which probably is still expressed in its name. Here, as in other alluvial formations, the beds of the running waters are undergoing incessant changes. FAUST, or FUST, JOHANN, the chief promoter of the invention of printing, a rich citizen of Mayence, died in the year 1460. See GUTENBERG. FAUST, DR, according to tradition, a celebrated dealer in the black art, frequently confounded with the preceding, was born at Knittlingen, in Würtemberg, or, as some say, at Roda near Weimar. He flourished during the latter half of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, and is said to have studied magic at Cracow. After having spent a rich inheritance left him by his uncle, F. is alleged to have made use of his 'power' to raise or conjure up the devil, with whom he entered into a contract for twenty-four years, obtaining during that time his fill of earthly pleasure, but at its termination surrendering body and soul into the hands of the Great Enemy. The devil gave him an attendant spirit or demon, called Mephistopheles, though other names are given him by the later traditionists, with whom he travelled about, enjoying life in all its forms, and astonishing people by working wonders, till he was finally carried off by the Evil One, who appeared in terrible guise, between twelve and one o'clock at night, at the village of Rimlich, near Wittenberg, though several other places lay claim to that very questionable honour. Some have doubted, considering the monstrously mythical form in which his career has come down to us, whether such an individual as F. ever existed; but it is now generally believed that there was a basis of fact, on which tradition has built its grotesque superstructure. Gorres, indeed, asserts that one George Sabellicus, who disappeared about the year 1517, is the real F.; but Philip Melancthon-the man of all the reformers whose word in regard to a matter of fact would most readily be trusted-says that he had himself conversed with Dr Faustus. Conrad Gesner (1561) is equally positive; and Luther, in his Table Talk, speaks of Dr F. as a man lost beyond all hope. The opinion that prevails, and which is reckoned to be intrinsically the more probable, is that some man of this name, possessed of varied knowledge, may possibly have practised jugglery (for the wandering savans of the middle ages had all a touch of the quack about them), and thus have been taken by the ignorant people for a dealer in the black art, and one who maintained a secret and intimate relation with evil spirits. His widely diffused celebrity not only occasioned the wonders worked by other so-called necromancers of an earlier age-Albertus Magnus, Simon Magus, and Paracelsus-to be attributed to him, but likewise many ancient tales and legends of a marvellous character were gradually transferred to him, till he finally appears as the very hero of magicians. But while, on the one hand, the narrative of F.'s marvels afforded amusement to the people, on the other, they were made use of for instruction by the clergy, who pointed out, in the frightful fate of F., the danger of tampering with the black art; and the abominableness of a life sunk in sensuality and vice. The myth of F. has received a manifold literary treatment. First come the Volksbücher (or people's books), which record F.'s enterprises and feats. The oldest of these now an improved edition of the same, by Widmann, entitled Wahrhaftige Historien von denen gräulichen Crimes of Dr John F., Hamb. 3 vols., 1599); and in Sünden Dr Joh. F.'s (True History of the Horrible 1695, a work was published at Nürnberg by Pfitzer, based upon that of Widmann. The oldest of these books was translated into all the civilised languages of Europe. magic under the name of F., such as Faust's grosser Impostors also published books of und gewaltiger Höllenzwang (Faust's Great and Potent Book of Spells), Fausten's Miraculkunst (Faust's Art of Performing Miracles), and Dreifache Höllenzwang (The Threefold Book of Spells). These wretched productions are filled throughout with meaningless scrawls and figures, interspersed with texts from the Bible scandalously misapplied; but in the belief of the vulgar, they were supposed capable, when properly understood, of accomplishing prodigies. That the poetical art should in due time have seized on a subject affording so much material for the fancy to work upon, was inevitable; and consequently, German literature abounds in elegies, pantomimes, tragedies, and comedies on Faust. Since the end of the 17th c., the Puppenspiel (Puppet-show) of Dr F. (first published at Leipsic in 1850) has been one of the most popular pieces in Germany. It forms the transition from the rude magic tales concerning F., to the later philosophic conception of the Faust-myth, which has become the most perfect poetical expression of the eternal strife between Good and Evil in the soul of man. first writer who treated the story of F. dramatically was the English writer Christopher Marlowe, about the year 1600 (German translation by W. Müller, Berlin, 1818); but the grandest work on the subject is Goethe's Faust, the first part of which appeared under the title of Dr F., ein Trauerspiel (Leip. 1790), and afterwards in a remodelled form, under the title of F., eine Tragödie (Tübingen, 1808). The second part was published after the author's death, at Stuttgart in 1833. Besides Goethe's drama, may be mentioned Lessing's masterly fragment, F. und die Sieben Geister (F. and the Seven Spirits), G. F. L. Müller's Dr F.'s Leben (Dr F.'s Life, Manh. 1778), and Klinger's F.'s Leben, Thaten, und Höllenfahrt (F.'s Life, Doings, and Descent into Hell; Petersb. and Leip. 1791). The plastic art has also found a fit subject in Faust. In Auerbach's cellar at Leipsic, where F. is said to have performed many of his feats, are two rude daubs of the year 1525, representing F. and Mephistopheles riding out of the cellar on a wine-barrel. Rembrandt and Christoph von Sichem have also illustrated the story of F., and, in modern times, Cornelius and Retzsch have done the same. See Peter's Die Literatur der Faustsage (The Literature of the Faust Myth), 2d ed. Leip. 1857. The FAUSTINA, mother and daughter. The former, Annia Galeria, usually spoken of as Faustina Senior, was the wife of the Roman emperor, Antoninus FAUSTINUS 1.-FAVRE. Pius, and died 141 A. D.; the latter, known as in Flanders, F. and his wife returned to Paris, where Faustina Junior, was married to his successor, the former continued to write operas. His wife died Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and died at a village in 1772, and he 12th May 1793. F.'s success as a near Mount Taurus in 175 A. D. Both, but particu- writer was very great: he may be reckoned the larly the younger, were notorious for the profligacy father of the comic opera, and the happy successor of their lives, which their exemplary husbands in of Le Sage, Piron, &c. The number of his pieces vain endeavoured to check. After their deaths, amounts to about 60, of which the most celebrated institutions for the relief of poor girls were founded are Comment l'Esprit vient aux Filles, Le Coq du both by Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius in honour Village, Bastien et Bastienne, Ninnette à la Cour, Les of them, and were called 'puellæ alimentaria Faus- Trois Sultanes, and L'Anglais à Bordeaux. tina. Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, speaks works have been published several times. highly of his wife, and an attempt has been made edition in ten volumes was published at Paris in by Wieland to defend her against the imputations 1810, under the title of Théâtre de Monsieur et of the historians of the emperors. Madame Favart. A very interesting book, entitled Les Mémoires et la Correspondence de Favart, giving delightful glimpses of the literary and theatrical world of the 18th c., was published at Paris in 1809 by his grandson. FAUSTINUS I., emperor of Haiti, known, before his elevation to the throne, as Faustinus Soulouque, a negro originally of very humble circumstances, was born in St Domingo in 1789. In his earlier years, he acted as servant, and afterwards as adjutant, to General Lamarre. He subsequently served under Presidents Petion and Boyer, and by the latter was raised to the rank of captain. After the year 1844, when the Haitian Republic-of which General Boyer was then president was dissolved, a struggle for the supreme power ensued, in which F. played an important part. In 1847 he was appointed by the senate President of the Republic. On the 16th April 1848, a dreadful massacre of the mulattoes in Port-au-Prince took place at his instigation. This, and similar measures, struck terror into the hearts of his opponents. In August 1849, he had himself proclaimed Emperor of Haiti, a title which he enjoyed for about ten years; but a revolution having broken out in 1858, and a republic having been declared, F. was forced to abdicate, 15th January 1859. FAUVETTE, a French name, partially adopted in the English language, for some of the little songbirds of the family Sylviada or Warblers, having straight slender bills slightly compressed in front, the ridge of the upper mandible curving a little towards the tip, and the legs not long. They mostly belong to the genus Curruca, as the Blackcap, the Pettychaps or Garden Warbler, the Whitethroat, &c.; and to the genus Salicaria, as the Sedge Warbler, the Reed Warbler, &c. The Dartford Warbler (Melizophilus Provincialis) is also called Fauvette. They are all very lively little birds, continually flitting about in pursuit of insects, mostly frequenting bushy places; and some of them, particularly those of the genus Salicaria, preferring watery situations where reeds abound. FAVA'RA, a town of Sicily, in the south of the island, in the province of Girgenti, and four miles south-east of the town of that name. It has rich sulphur-mines, and a population of 11,400. FAVART, CHARLES SIMON, a French dramatist, was born at Paris 13th November 1710, and first became known by his La Chercheuse d'Esprit, performed in 1741. In 1745, he married Mademoiselle Duronceray, herself a dramatic writer of some note, and a singer of remarkable talent, and in the same year became director of the OpéraComique. The fine taste and judgment of F. and his wife soon obtained for their theatre a great reputation. It was they who made the first attempt to harmonise the costume of the actors and actresses with their impersonations, and to put a stop to the ridiculous practice of decking out soubrettes and country-girls in the attire of court-ladies. So powerful, however, was the opposition excited against them by the jealousy of the other theatres, that the Opéra-Comique was closed in the first year of its existence. After some time spent with Maréchal de Saxe during his campaign His An FAVERSHAM, a municipal borough and seaport in the north of Kent, on a navigable creek, opposite Sheppey Isle, 8 miles west-north-west of Canterbury. It chiefly consists of four streets in an irregular cross. It has a valuable oyster-fishery, employing 200 to 300 persons. It sends much agricultural produce to London by hoys. The creek admits vessels of 150 tons. In the vicinity are some of the most important gunpowder factories in the kingdom. Pop. (1861) 5891. Under the name of Favresfield, it was a seat of the Saxon kings, where Athelstan, in 930, held a Witenagemôte. It has the remains of an abbey founded by King Stephen, where he and his queen, Matilda, are buried. St Crispin is said to have been apprenticed to a shoemaker here. Near F. are some chalk caverns, with columns. In 1860, 2786 vessels, of 165,200 tons, entered and cleared the port. FAVIGNA'NA, the chief of the Ægades, a group of islands in the Mediterranean, off the west coast of Sicily, lies at a distance of six miles from the Sicilian shore, and is about six miles long, with an average breadth of two miles. It has a town of the same name, with two castles, and a population of 3900. F. is fruitful, has good pasturage, and produces excellent wine. FA'VOSITES, a genus of lamelliferous corals, found in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata. They were social corals, closely packed together, no space being left between the walls of the different corallites. As in the other paleozoic corals, the lamellæ are developed in multiples of four, and the older portion of the stony base is partitioned off by horizontal tabulæ. FAVOURS, or MARRIAGE FAVOURS, bows of white satin ribbons distributed at marriages in Great Britain, and usually pinned on the breast of all concerned, attendants and postilions included. The favours of those more immediately interested are sometimes enriched with orange blossom. This is an old usage, connected with the love-knot of ancient northern nations, which is not likely soon to disappear; it forms almost the only remaining token of merriment in the nuptial ceremonial. See Brand's Popular Antiquities, edited by Ellis, article Bride Favours.' FAVRE, GABRIEL CLAUDE JULES, a French advocate and deputy, was born at Lyon, 31st March 1809. He is the son of a merchant, studied for the bar, and passed at Lyon in 1830. His political opinions were and are intensely republican, and when pleading for his clients, in the course of the numerous political lawsuits which he was employed to carry on, F. not unfrequently placed the state solicitors, and even the judges, in a very embarrassing position, by the boldness of his sentiments. As the defender of the Mutuellists at Lyon in 1831, he FAVUS-FAYETTEVILLE. was in danger of losing his life; this, however, did not prevent him from appearing before the House of Peers, in 1834, as the defender of those who had been impeached in April, and commencing his speech with Je suis Républicain. Since 1834, F. has been a member of the Paris bar. In the February revolution of 1848, F. was appointed Home Secretary, in which capacity he wrote the notorious circular for which Ledru-Rollin's administration was so severely reproached, investing the commissioners of the republic with dictatorial authority in the provinces. As a member of the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and for some time under-secretary to the same, he took an active part in the labours of the Assembly. After the election of the 10th December, F. shewed himself a persistent antagonist of the President, Louis Napoleon, and after the flight of Ledru-Rollin, became the orator of the Mountain. The coup d'état virtually closed his political career. He refused to take the oath of fidelity to the imperial government, and betook himself again to his professional duties. In 1858, he defended Orsini, on his trial for a conspiracy to murder. F. is greatest in political repartee, and though long accustomed to the rough arena of public strife, his language is noted for its Attic elegance. He is the author of several political brochures. FA'VUS (Lat. a honeycomb), a disease of the skin, chiefly of the hairy scalp, characterised by yellowish dry incrustations of more or less roundish form, and often cup-shaped, composed of the Sporules and Mycelia (q. v.) of a vegetable growth belonging to the order of Fungi (q. v.). The discs of favus are produced with great rapidity, and spread rapidly, if not attended to at the first, over the whole scalp, destroying the bulbs of the hair, which becomes very short and thin, and then falls out altogether. Favus is a disgusting and unsightly, but hardly a dangerous disorder; it is, beyond doubt, contagious, but only spreads where cleanliness is greatly neglected, and is therefore almost unknown among the better classes. It is far more common among children than among adults, and seems to be more frequent in Scotland than in England, and more frequent also on the continent than in either England or Scotland. The cure is sometimes attempted by a variety of medicated and simple ointments, and by pulling out the hair by the roots, or epilation, as it is called; but it seems hardly possible in inveterate cases to get rid of the disease without a very long persistence in habits of the most scrupulous cleanliness, and therefore the cure is seldom permanent, though easily attained for the time. Favus is almost always followed by permanent baldness of the parts affected; unlike Ringworm (q. v.), which is a minor disease of the same order. The Favus fungus, Achorion Schoenleinii, is nearly allied to the fungus which has recently proved so destructive to vines, and has by some botanists been placed in the same genus, Oidium. FAWKES, GUY (properly GUIDO), the head of the conspiracy known by the name of the Gunpowder Plot, was born of a Protestant family in Yorkshire, in the year 1570. He became a Roman Catholic at an early age, and served in the Spanish army in the Netherlands. Inspired with fanatical zeal for his new religion, on his return to England, he entered into a plot with several Catholic gentlemen for blowing up the king, his ministers, and the members of both houses at the opening of parliament, 5th November 1605. Guy F. was taken with the burning match in his hand, tried, and after having been put to the torture, was publicly executed January 31, 1606. In remembrance of this event, in most English towns, but particularly in London, a grotesque figure, stuffed with straw, is carried about the streets on the 5th of November, and finally committed to the flames. Gmdo faukes Gissio Guy Fawkes's Signature before and after torture. A political and religious signification was again imparted to this custom by what was called the papal aggression' in the year 1850, when the figure of Cardinal Wiseman (q. v.) was substituted for that of Guy Fawkes. FA'Y, ANDRÁS, a Hungarian author, was born in 1786, at Kohany, in the county of Zemplén. After having studied philosophy and law at the Protestant college of Sárospatak, F. was called to the bar. He held a situation for some time in the county of Pesth, which, however, he afterwards relinquished, in order to be able to devote himself altogether to literary pursuits. After two volumes of poetry, appeared the collection of Fables (Mesék, Vien. 1820), and with the issue of that work F. obtained a decided reputation. The fables are like those of Phædrus and La Fontaine, but in prose. Richness of invention, simplicity of design, and truth of character, are the chief qualities for which the Mesék have become a household word among Hungarians. Among F.'s dramatic works may be mentioned the tragedy, The Two Bathorys (A Két Báthory, Pesth, 1827); the comedies, Ancient Coins (Régi Pénzek), and Hunters in the Matra (Mátrai Vadászok). The novel, The House of the Béltekys (A' Béltéky-haz, Pesth, 1832), is rather of a didactic kind, but exhibits many features of Hungarian domestic life. Besides these, F. has been a constant contributor to literary and scientific periodicals, and had also his share in some of those pamphlets by which great social questions, as, for instance, female education, savingsbanks, &c., were brought to a successful issue in Hungary. In reading F.'s works, we are frequently reminded of Dean Swift. From 1825, which year may be said to have been the beginning of a new political life for Hungary, up to the year 1840, F. was foremost among the leaders of the liberal opposition in the county sittings of Pesth; but on the appearance of Kossuth, the strides of public life growing more and more rapid, F. gradually retired from the region of political controversy, turning his inventive mind to social improvements. The first savingsbank of Hungary (at Pesth) is entirely F.'s work. His literary works were published in eight volumes at Pesth, 1843-1844. He is a directing member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Azores (q. V.), contains about 37 square miles, and FAYA'L, one of the most important of the about 22,000 inhabitants. As one must infer from such density of population, the island is fertile. In its centre is a mountain 3000 feet in height; and on its south-east coast a convenient bay with good anchorage. Its principal town, Horta, stands on this bay in lat. 38° 30′ Ñ., and long. 28° 41′ W. FAYETTEVILLE is the name of a flourishing city of North Carolina, United States of America. Standing on the left bank of the Cape Fear River, about 140 miles from its mouth, F. marks the head of its natural navigation; while, by means of locks FAYUM-FEATHER GRASS. and dams, it communicates likewise with the upper cautiousness. Sudden fear in sleep, horrible dreams, basin of the river. While the interior sends down coal, the immediate neighbourhood is covered with forests of pine, which are traversed in all directions by 350 miles of plank-road, and yield not merely timber but tar and turpentine. The Cape Fear, moreover, gives abundance of water-power, which is largely applied to the manufacture of cottons and flour. F. has an arsenal of nearly 50 acres in extent, and numbers fully 8000 inhabitants. FAYUM, the name of an Egyptian province, surrounded, in the form of a basin, by the Libyan Desert, and connected merely by a narrow valley with that of the Nile, between lat. 29° 30° N., and 30°-31° E. This peculiar depression of the desert extends about 30 miles from north to south, and about 40 miles from east to west, its lowest point lying 100 feet below the banks of the Nile at Benisuef. F. is one of the most fertile provinces in Egypt; producing, in addition to the ordinary useful plants of the country, roses, apricots, figs, vines, olives, &c. in great quantities. This fertility, in a province the soil of which is naturally arid and sandy, is the result of irrigation. A canal from the Nile was, at an early period, carried westward through a gorge in the Libyan hills, which here skirt the western bank of the Nile, and after dividing into numerous branches, lodged its waters in a depression in the north-west, thus forming, it is said, the Lake Moeris (q. v.). The ancient capital of the province, called Krokodilopolis, and at a later period Arsinoë, stood on the eastern shore of Lake Moris, and upon its ruins stands the present town, Medinet-el-Fayûm, still a place of considerable size, and the chief town of the province. FEAL AND DIVOT is a Predial Servitude (q. v.) peculiar to the law of Scotland, in virtue of which the proprietor of the dominant tenement possesses the right of turning up and carrying off turf from the servient tenement for the purpose of building fences, roofing houses, and the like. This, as well as the servitude of fuel, implies the right of using the nearest grounds of the servient tenement on which to lay and dry the Turf Peats (q. v.) or feal. These servitudes do not extend beyond the ordinary uses of the actual occupants of the dominant tenement, and cannot be taken advantage of for such a purpose as to burn limestone for sale. They are not included in the servitude of pasturage, but must be constituted either by express grant, or by possession following on the usual clause of parts and pertinents. Ersk. ii. tit. ix. s. 17. The etymology of these words has been much disputed. Feal or fail is said to come from the Suio-Gothic wall, any grassy part of the surface of the ground; and Jamieson derives divot from delve (Sax. delfan or delven), or, as another alternative, says that it may have been formed by the monkish writers of old charters from defodere, to dig the earth. The former is the more probable conjecture. FEALTY (Lat. fidelitas) is the fidelity which a man who holds lands of another owes to him, and contains an engagement to perform the services, or to pay the dues, for which the land is granted. It was embodied in an oath, by which the tenant bound himself on entering to the lands. In taking the oath of fidelity, Littleton says, s. 91, that the tenant shall not kneel, nor shall make such humble reverence as in homage. The only object of fealty in modern times is to keep up the evidence of tenure where no other services are due; but even to this effect it has gone into desuetude. FEAR, MANIA OF, or PANPHOBIA. There are many morbid manifestations of the instinct of nightmare, sleep-walking, have been regarded as FEASTS. See FESTIVALS. FEATHER, a river of California, and a feeder of the Sacramento, runs through one of the richest gold-fields in the state. It receives the Yuba near Marysville, which appears to mark the head of navigation-the distance down the F. and the Sacramento to the harbour of San Francisco being about 100 miles. In FEATHER GRASS (Stipa), a genus of grasses remarkable for the long awns which give a peculiar and very graceful appearance to the species, mostly natives of warm temperate climates. some of them, the awn is beautifully feathered. This is the case in the best known species, the COMMON F. G. (S. pennata), a very doubtful native of Britain, but found on dry hills in the middle and FEATHER GRASS-FEATHERS. south of Europe. It is a perennial, easy of cultivation, and a favourite ornament of our gardens. When gathered before the seeds are ripe, its feathery awns -sometimes a foot in length-remain attached, so that tufts of F. G. retain their beauty throughout winter, and form one of the most pleasing and familiar decorations of rooms. They are often dyed, to give variety to the decoration, but are never more beautiful than in their natural yellowishwhite colour. The feathery awns not only assist in the diffusion of the seed, which is carried by the wind to great distances, but in a very interesting manner help to fix it in the soil. The seed alights vertically, the furrowed base of the awn becomes twisted, so that its furrows form the threads of a screw, the feathery portion becomes horizontal, the wind acts on it, and the seed is screwed into the ground-a reverse action being prevented by stiff hairs which act as barbs.-The Esparto (q. v.) of Spain is nearly allied to the Common Feather Grass. Feather Grass (Stipa pennata). FEATHERS, a complicated modification of the tegumentary system forming the external covering or plumage of birds, and peculiar to this class of animals. Notwithstanding the varieties of size, strength, and colour, all feathers are composed of a quill or barrel, a; a shaft, bb; and a vane, beard, or web, cc, on either side of the shaft, the vane consisting of barbs and barbules. The quill by which the feather is attached to the skin is wider but shorter than the shaft, and forms a semi-transparent, horny, cylindrical tube, which terminates below in an obtuse ex Feather. tremity, presenting an orifice termed the lower umbilicus, e. A second orifice, leading into the interior of the quill, and termed the upper umbilicus, f, is situated at the opposite end, where the two vanes meet and unite. The cavity of the quill contains a series of conical capsules fitted one upon another, and united by a central pedicle; and the whole structure presents a remarkable combination of strength and lightness. The shaft is always of greater length than the quill, and tapers gradually to its free extremity; it is flattened at the sides, is more or less convex on the back, and presents a longitudinal groove inferiorly. It is composed of white, elastic, spongy structure, which is covered by a thin horny sheath. At the point of junction of the shaft and quill, we usually observe-except on the feathers of the wings and tail-a small supplementary shaft given off, which is furnished with barbs or fibres, and is termed the plumule or accessory plume. In the ostrich it is altogether absent; in the rhea, it is represented by a tuft of down; in the emu, on the other hand, it equals the original feathers in size, so that the quill supports two shafts; and in the cassowary there is a second plumule of considerable size, so that the quill presents three distinct shafts. The vanes or webs are composed of numerous barbs or small fibres arranged in a single series along each side of the shaft. They are fine prolongations of the outer coat of the shaft, are of a flattened form, and lie inclined towards the apex of the feather, with their flat sides towards each other, and their margins in the direction of the external and internal sides of the feather. The barbs are broader near the shaft than at the free apex, and in the large wing-feathers the convexity of one is received into the concavity of another. They are, however, generally kept in position by the barbules, which are minute curved filaments arising from the upper edge of the barb, much as the latter arises from the shaft. There are two sets of these barbules, one curved upwards, and the other downwards, and those of one barb hook so firmly into those of the next, as to form a close and compact surface. In the ostrich, the barbules are well developed, but are loose and separate, and it is this arrangement which gives to the feathers of this bird their soft, plumous appearance. Feathers present numerous gradations of structure. In the cassowary, the wings, instead of being provided with ordinary feathers, are furnished with five cylindrical stalks destitute of barbs, so that here we have merely the quill and shaft. On the breast of the wild turkey there is a tuft of feathers resembling long black hair. In the Dasylophus Cumingii, the feathers of the crest, breast, and throat are changed, at their extremities, into round, horny lamellæ, looking like shining black spangles; and in the common waxwing or Bohemian chatterer, some of the wing-feathers present at their extremities small horny expansions, resembling red sealing-wax, both in colour and consistence. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds, especially of aquatic species-in which plumules rarely exist is covered with a thick coating of down, which may be described as consisting of very minute feathers, each of which is composed of a very small soft tube lying in the skin, from the interior of which arises a minute tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. This downy covering secures warmth without weight, like the soft fur at the base of the hair of arctic mammals. In most birds, the skin also bears a good many scattered hair-like appendages, which indicate their relations to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs towards the apex. Feathers are developed in depressions of the skin, lined by an inversion of the epidermis which surrounds the bulb from which each feather springs; they grow, much in the same manner as hairs, by the addition of new cells from the bulb, which becomes modified into the horny and fibrous stem, and by the elongation of previously existing cells. They are, when first formed, living vascular parts, growing by nutrient vessels; but when they are fully formed, the vessels become atrophied, and the feathers become dried up, and gradually die from the summit to the base. For a full account of the development of the different parts, we must refer to Professor Owen's article, Aves,' and to Professor |