GEORGIA BARK-GERACE. 9th c., during the decline of the Arabian Califate, the Georgians recovered their independence for a short period, but it was only to become tributary in the 10th c. to those dynasties which, in Persia, took the place of the Califs. Toward the end of the 10th c., they again achieved independence, and inaugurated the most brilliant era in Georgian history; for from this period to the 13th c., when they were conquered by the Mongols, G. was governed by a series of able sovereigns, who increased its extent, repulsed its enemies, and raised it to great prosperity. Toward the end of the 14th c. the country fell into the hands of Timour, who, however, was driven from it in the beginning of the following century by George VII. Alexander I., the successor of George VII, committed the fatal error of dividing the kingdom between his three sons. Each of these states was again divided, and at one time 26 different princes reigned in Georgia. The general history of G. now divides into two parts: that of the eastern states, Karthli and Kacheth; and that of the western states, including Imereth, Mingrelia, and Guria. From the 16th to the 18th c., the eastern states had been heavily oppressed by Persia, and in 1799 Gregory XI., after many attempts to establish their independence, resigned the states in favour of Paul Emperor of Russia, and in 1802 the Emperor Alexander proclaimed the territory a Russian province. Of the three states forming Western G., Guria fell into the hands of Russia in 1801, and formally surrendered itself to that empire by the treaty of 1810; Mingrelia was virtually added to Russia in 1803; and the state of Imereth toward the close of the 18th century. Thus the whole of G. has been brought under the dominion of Russia, and has been united, along with the other Transcaucasian possessions of that country, into a general government, the head of which unites in his own person the military and civil powers, and exercises military supremacy over the whole of the Caucasus. For the character of the country of G., and for its capabilities, see TRANSCAUCASIA. The Georgians are one of that numerous group of nations or tribes that inhabit the Caucasus, to which Dr Latham has given the name of Dioscurians (see CAUCASUS). They are celebrated for their beauty, and under the Mohammedan rule, the white slaves of Western Asia and of Egypt were mostly drawn from among them and the Circassians. Though endowed by nature with mental no less than physical advantages, the long course of oppression to which they have been subjected has had its effect both upon their intelligence and their morality. Despite the long supremacy and cruel tyranny of their Mohammedan conquerors, they have, as a nation, remained faithful to the Christian religion, according to the doctrines of the Greek church. In Guria, however, nearly half the inhabitants have gone over to the religion of Islam. The condition of the people, although somewhat ameliorated under Russian rule, is on the whole deplorable. The language of the Georgians is harsh, but regular and forcible. It has a peculiar structure, and Dr Latham considers it as having nearer affinities with the Tibetan and other monosyllabic tongues, than with the Aryan. The literature, which is not altogether unimportant, begins with the introduction of Christianity into the country, and consists chiefly of ecclesiastical writings, translations of the Bible, the fathers, Plato, Aristotle, and their commentators. Profane literature flourished chiefly in the 17th c., and consists mainly of poetry and chronicles, particularly of an ecclesiastical character. A few heroic poems may be traced back to the time of Queen Thamar (1184-1206). Scientific works are few in number, and with the exception of a few historical works, are of no importance. Recently, however, a greater zeal in the cultivation of the sciences has begun to shew itself among the Georgians, and under the Russian government the system of education and instruction has progressed considerably. On the other hand, it must be regarded as a circumstance unfavourable to the mental culture of the country, that, in 1807, the archives and scientific works of G. were conveyed to St Petersburg. The person most thoroughly conversant with the language, literature, and history of G. is Brosset. Besides the translation of a Georgian chronicle, he has published, among other works, the Elements de la Langue Georgienne (Paris, 1837), the Rapport sur un Voyage Archéologique dans la Georgie et dans l'Arménie, exécuté en 1847-1848 (Petersburg, 1850-1851), L'Histoire de la Georgie, in Georgian and French, and Additions et Eclaircissements à l'Histoire de la Georgie (Petersburg, 1851). GEORGIA BARK. See PINCKNEYA. GEORGSWALDE, a small town on the northern border of Bohemia, 64 miles north of Prague. It has a mineral spring and some manufactures of linen. Pop. 5100. GEOTEU'THIS, a genus of fossil calamaries, peculiar to the Oolitic period. The shell or horny pen is broad and truncated in front, and pointed shaft. Some specimens from the Oxford clay are behind, with the lateral wings shorter than the remarkably preserved, still shewing the muscular mouth, the bases of the arms, and the ink-bag. The ink has been made into Sepia. Some of the ink-bags from the Lias are nearly a foot long, and are invested with a brilliant nacreous layer. Upwards of a dozen species have been found. GERA, a town of Germany, the chief place in the small principality of Reuss, is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the White Elster, 35 miles south-south-west of Leipsic. It is handsomely built, with broad and regular streets, and has six squares, a castle, a fine town hall, and several There are religious and educational institutions. extensive manufactures of woollen and cotton goods, also machine making, and manufactures of soap, gloves, leather, hats, tobacco, waxcloth, ironware, stoneware, and porcelain. In 1850, 4925 looms were employed here in the production of woollen goods, which are exported to various parts of the world to the value of about £450,000 annually. Pop. 12,000. GERA'CE, an ancient commercial town in the south of Italy, chief town of the district of the same name, in the province of Calabria Ultra I., occupies a beautiful and fertile situation on the upper slopes of the Apennines, at about four miles distance from the Ionian Sea. On the destruction of the ancient town of Locri by the Saracens in the 12th c., the inhabitants, out of the ruins of their homes, constructed a new settlement about four miles from the site of Locri, on the seashore, and called it Santa Ciriace, which has since become Gerace. This town has suffered severely from repeated earthquakes, in one of which, in 1783, both the cathedral and the citadel, a fortress of great strength, were reduced to ruins. In a neighbouring plain are seen ruins supposed to occupy the site of Locri Epizephyrii, an important city of Magna Grecia, celebrated by Pindar in more than one of his odes. Coins bearing the epigraph of Locri have been found in the vicinity of the ruins, and together with the Greek character borne by the ruined edifices, seem to support GERANIUM-GÉRARD. this supposition. The modern G. is well-built, gated by cuttings. They require a light rich soil: and owes its commercial prosperity to its silk a mixture of leaf mould and sand is very suitable. factories and its trade in wine, a sweet white They are kept low by pruning, to increase their kind of which, known as 'Il Greco di Gerace,' is beauty and make them more productive of flowers. deservedly held in high repute. Pop. 5900. This order contains at least 500 known species, very unequally distributed over the world, and particularly abounding at the Cape of Good Hope, of which country most of the species of the large genus Pelargonium are natives a genus distinguished by an irregular corolla and by a nectariferous tube running down the flower-stalk. Many species of Pelargonium, and many fine hybrids and varieties produced by cultivation, are to be seen in green-houses, and some of them are frequent in cottage-windows. The name geranium is still very frequently given to them. The British Geraniaceae are thirteen species of Geranium and three of Erodium, all herbaceous. Some of them are common weeds in fields and gardens, with small flowers; others have large and beautiful flowers, and are among the finest ornaments of groves and meadows. Some species of Geranium are often cultivated in flower-gardens. The name Geranium (Gr. geranos, a crane), the popular English name Crane's-bill, and the German Storchsnabel, all refer to the beaked fruit. The Geraniacea are generally characterised by astringency; many have a disagreeable, others a pleasantly aromatic and resinous smell, some a delightful fragrance. The STINKING CRANE'S-BILL or HERB ROBERT (Geranium Robertianum), a common weed in Britain, with a diffuse habit, deeply divided leaves, and small flowers, has been used medicinally as an astringent, and in nephritic complaints. G. maculatum, a North American species, with flowers of considerable beauty, is the most valuable medicinal plant of the order. Its root, called ALUM ROOT in America, is extremely astringent, and abounds in tannin: it is used for gargles and as a medicine in various diseases. GÉRARD, ETIENNE-MAURICE, COMTE, Marshal of France, was born at Damvilliers, in Lorraine, on the 4th of April 1773. He enrolled as a volunteer in the second battalion of the Meuse, and served during the campaign of 1792-1793 under Dumouriez and Jourdan, and afterwards accompanied Bernadotte on his embassy to Vienna, where he was the means of saving his master's life in the mêlée that ensued on his arrival. After rising rapidly through the different grades of promotion, he was appointed colonel on the 15th November 1800, and in 1805 aid-de-camp to his friend Bernadotte. He specially distinguished himself at Austerlitz (1805), in consequence of which he was appointed general of brigade, at Halle (1806), Jena (1806), Erfurt (1806), Lintz (1809), and Wagram (1809). On the morning after this last battle, he received the title of Baron of the Empire. He took part both in the wars of the Spanish Peninsula and in the Russian campaign; and in 1812 was made a general of division. Subsequently, Napoleon named him Count of the Empire. After the first restoration, he was named Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, and Chevalier of St Louis, and received various honourable appointments. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, G. joined him, and commanded the fourth corps, numbering 16,000 the centre of the Prussian position, which covered At the battle of Ligny, G. was opposite to Ligny, and was thus in the hottest of the fight. On the morning of the 18th of June, G. was near Wavres, when firing was heard in the direction of G.'s advice had been taken, the battle of Waterloo Soignies, upon which a council was called, and if might perhaps have had a different result. After the second restoration, G. was obliged to leave France, and did not return till 1817. He was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1822; he also took an active part in the revolution of 1830, and commanded the troops appointed to maintain order and tranquillity in Paris. In 1831, Louis Philippe appointed G. a marshal of France, and gave him the command of the expedition to himself by taking Antwerp in December 1832. In Belgium, in the course of which he distinguished 1835 he succeeded Marshal Mortier as Grand Chancellor of the Legion of Honour. He died 17th of April 1855. men. GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS PASCAL, BARON, one of the first historical and portrait painters of the modern French school, was born at Rome, 11th March 1770. At an early age, he went to France, and was apprenticed to Pajou, the sculptor, in Paris. He afterwards worked for some time in the studio of the painter Brenet, and in his 16th year became the pupil of David, but his artistic career was interrupted for several years by the Revolution. In 1795, he exhibited his first picture, 'Belisarius;' some time after, he painted 'Psyche receiving the First Kiss from Cupid.' Encouraged by his success, he now turned his attention to portrait-painting. Having gained Napoleon's favour, he was loaded A few Geraniacea produce edible tubers: those with honours, and received, among other commisof Geranium tuberosum are eaten in the south of sions, that of painting the Battle of Austerlitz, perEurope; those of G. parviflorum in Van Diemen's haps the most successful of his paintings illustrating Land, where they are known as Native Carrot; and the campaigns of Napoleon. But his grandest work those of Pelargonium triste at the Cape of Good-both as regards size and merit-is his 'Entrance Hope. The leaves of Pelargonium acetosum and P. peltatum are edible, and gratefully acid. The cultivated Geraniacea are propagated by seed or by cuttings; the shrubby kinds are very easily propa of Henri Quatre into Paris.' It is 30 feet wide by 15 high, glowing with life, bright with colour, and accurate in costume. It was painted in 1817. G. was shortly after appointed first court-painter, GERASA-GERHARDT'S NOTATION. and raised to the rank of Baron by Louis XVIII. He died at Paris, 11th January 1837. G.'s most celebrated portraits are those of Napoleon in his Coronation Robes, the Queen of Naples and her Children, Talleyrand, Talma, Louis Philippe, and Madame Récamier. Of his other pictures, the best known are 'Ossian's Dream' (engraved by Godefroy), 'Homer' (engraved by Massard), ‘Daphnis and Chloë,' Philip V.,' 'Corinna on the Promontory of Misena, St Theresa Kneeling at the Altar,' and "Thetis Bearing the Armour of Achilles.' GERA'SA, in the time of the Romans, was a city of Palestine, on the eastern borders of Peræa. It was situated among the mountains of Gilead, about 20 miles east of the Jordan, and 25 north of Rabbath-Ammon, and attained a high degree of prosperity under the Antonines (138-180 A.D.). On the rise of Christianity, it became the seat of a bishopric, but subsequently sunk into decay. G. is now deserving of notice solely on account of its ruins, which are said to be the most beautiful and extensive in that part of Palestine lying east of the Jordan. In fact, it presents the appearance of a city in ruins, but which still preserves its original outlines. Great portions of the wall surrounding the town are in good preservation; three of the gateways are almost perfect, and within the city more than 230 columns are still standing on their pedestals. GERBI, GERBA, or JERBA (the Meninx of Strabo and Pliny), a small island on the north coast of Africa belonging to the state of Tunis, is situated in the Gulf of Cabes, and is separated by a strait from a headland on the shore. It is about 20 miles long and 12 miles broad, and is fertile and populous. Shawls of brilliant colours, beautiful silk and woollen fabrics of the finest texture, bornous and blankets, are manufactured. This island contains a triumphal arch in honour of Antoninus and Verus, and a pyramid from 25 to 30 feet in height, built up of the skulls of the Spanish soldiers who fell here in a disastrous battle with the Turks in the 6th century. GERHARDT, KARL FRIEDRICH, an eminent chemist, was born at Strasburg on the 21st of August 1816, and died in that city on the 19th of August 1856. At the age of fifteen, he was sent to the Polytechnic School of Carlsruhe, where his attendance at Professor Walchner's lectures first awaked in his mind a taste for chemistry. After two years' residence in this town he removed to Leipsic, where he attended the lectures of Erdmann, which seem to have developed in him an irresistible passion for questions of speculative chemistry. On his return home, he reluctantly entered upon the business of his father, who was a manufacturer of chemical products; but the requirements of commerce seem to have been intensely repugnant to him, and in a hasty moment of passion he enlisted (being now in his twentieth year) in a regiment of chasseurs. He soon, however, found a military life as insupportable as a commercial career, and in the course of three months he purchased his discharge, and at once set out for the laboratory of Giessen, where he worked under Liebig's superintendence for eighteen months. In 1838 he arrived in Paris, where he was cordially welcomed by Dumas. Here he gave lectures and instructions in chemistry, and, with Chevreul's permission, worked in the laboratory of the Jardin des Plantes, where, in association with his friend Cahours (to whose memoir of G. we are indebted for many of the facts noticed in this article), he commences his important researches on the essential oils. In 1844 he was appointed professor of General Chemistry in the Faculty of Sciences at Montpellier, and in the same year he married the youngest daughter of the late Dr James Sanders of Edinburgh. About this time he published his Précis de Chimie Organique, in which he sketches the idea of Homologous and Heterologous Series' (q. v.), which at a later period he so successfully developed. In 1845, in association with Laurent, he commenced the Comptes rendus des Travaux de Chimie publiés en France et à l'Etranger, which were continued till 1848. In 1848, he resigned his chair and returned to Paris, in order to follow out uninterruptedly his special investigations; and in that city he established, between the years 1849 and 1855, in successive memoirs, his views of series (already adverted to) and the theory of types, with which his name will be ever associated in the history of chemistry. It was there, also, that gave to the scientific world his remarkable researches upon the anhydrous acids and the oxides. All his ideas and his discoveries are embodied in his Traité de Chimie Organique (1853-1856, 4 vols.), which forms, to use the words of his friend and biographer Cahours, an important monument of modern science.' He had hardly completed the correction of the last proof of this great work, when, after an illness of only two days, he was surprised by the hand of death at the very period when he seemed to be beginning to enjoy the fruit of his labours; for he had just received the diploma of corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and in the previous year he was appointed professor of chemistry at Strasbourg. he GERHARDT'S NOTATION is now intro duced, not only into numerous foreign works on chemistry, but into some of our recent English Chemical Analyses, Odling's Manual of Chemistry, manuals-as, for example, Comington's Handbook of &c.; and being employed by a large section of Williamson, Brodie, Hofmann, and Odling-requires English chemists-as, for example, Professors Gerhardt has doubled the combining or equivalent a brief notice. On certain theoretical grounds, numbers of oxygen, carbon, sulphur, selenia, and tellurium; the other numbers remaining unaltered. We give in the following table the ordinary and Gerhardt's numbers: In Gerhardt's formule we have printed in italics the symbols whose equivalents are changed. Each system of notation has its advantages, but upon the whole we are inclined to agree with Professor Miller, that 'the question to be considered is not simply, what is in the abstract the best mode of notation, but what, considering all the circumstances of the science, possesses the greatest advantage. That system of notation which is GERIZIM AND EBAL-GERMAN CATHOLICS. consistent with itself, and which lends itself their aversion to agriculture, and, indeed, to any most completely to the expression of the various form of industry. Population estimated at 15,000. theories and aspects of the science which have been maintained, or may be maintained, is therefore, philosophically speaking, the best. And such grounds, it appears to me, exist for continuing to use the system hitherto adopted.' GERI'ZIM AND E'BAL, two mountains celebrated in Scripture story. They are separated from each other by a narrow valley about 200 yards wide, in which stands the town of Nabulus, the ancient Shechem or Sychar, the metropolis of the Samaritan sect. They are nearly equal in altitude, neither of them exceeding 700 or 800 feet above the level of the valley, which, however, is itself 1800 feet above the sea. The view from the top of Mount G., the southern hill, is said to be among the finest in Palestine, embracing, as it does, glimpses of the blue waters of the Mediterranean on the west, the snow-capped heights of Hermon on the north, and on the east the wall of the Trans-Jordanic mountains, broken by the deep cleft of the brook Jabbok. At GERLACHE, ETIENNE CONSTANTIN, BARON DE, a native of the province of Luxemburg, in Belgium, was born on the 26th December 1785. In 1824, he was elected as deputy from the province of Liege to the second chamber of the States General.' the time of the Revolution, G. presided over the committee appointed to revise the constitution, and was head of the deputation sent to offer the crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In 1831, he became president of congress, and in that capacity received the oath exacted from the king by the constitution, and the following year was appointed first president of the court of cassation.' In 1843, the king conferred on him the title of baron. Since his election as deputy in 1824, he has supported the Catholic party, and is now considered as one of their chief leaders. G. has also acquired a literary repu tation. The most important of his works are the following: Memoires sur les Changements à apporter aux Tarifs du Royaume, which appeared between 1821 and 1824, and were addressed to the king: Histoire du Royaume des Pays-Bas, depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830 (Brussels, 1839), besides other works of local interest. 6 GERMAN, SAN, a town in the south-west of the Spanish island of Porto Rico, stands in lat. 18° 10 N., long. 67° W. It is situated about 10 miles from the sea, in the centre of a district productive in cotton, coffee, and cattle. Its population is esti mated at 9125. GERMAN BARM. See YEAST. tions, and most commonly style themselves Chris- In all probability, Mount G., and not the mere hillock called Moriah, on which Solomon afterwards built the Temple, was the place where Abraham offered up his son Isaac. Along with Mount Ebal, it was also the scene of a grand and impressive ceremony, in which the whole people of Israel took part after crossing the Jordan, in obedience to a command which Moses had given them. Half of the tribes stood upon the declivities of the one hill; the rest occupied the sides of the other, while in the valley between, the Levites, surrounding the sacred ark, pronounced, with loud voice,' the blessings GERMAN CATHOLICS is the name generally affixed to the performance of the law, and the curses affixed to the neglect of it. According to the given to a religious sect that has recently sprung up Mishna, their manner of procedure was as follows: in Germany in the bosom of the Roman Catholic They first turned towards Gerizim, and pronounced i e., universal-they form independent congregaChurch. Though retaining the designation Catholic the blessing, whereupon the vast host that thronged the ascent of that hill rolled back their multitudinous Amen;' then turning towards Ebal, they uttered the corresponding malediction, to which the tribes there stationed responded in deep and solemn tones. In this way, alternating blessing and curse, they went through the whole series. The narrative of the ceremony (which is to be found in the 27th chapter of Deuteronomy) gives only the cursesthe customary explanation of which fact is, that probably these were merely the reverse form of the blessings, and may have been selected by the writer of the book on account of the greater awe inspired, among a rude people, by a malediction than a benediction. At a later period the Samaritans, by permission of Alexander the Great, built a temple on Mount G., as a rival to that of Jerusalem, and organised a rival priesthood. And though this temple was destroyed by Hyrcanus about 200 years after, the mountain on which it stood continued to be held sacred by the Samaritans. It was to Mount G. that the woman of Samaria' referred when she said to our Saviour: Our fathers worshipped in this mountain, and ye say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship.' Subsequently, à Christian church in honour of the Virgin was built on it, which Justinian surrounded with a strong wall to protect it against the assaults of the Samaritans, who were even then a powerful and important sect. The ruins of this wall are still visible. GE'RKI, a considerable town of Africa, is situated in the Súdan, in the district of Sokoto, in lat. 12° 26' N., and long. 9° 10′ E. It is surrounded by a wall surmounted with pinnacles. Its inhabitants are notorious for their thievish propensities, and for schism, the immediate occasion of it was the exhiWhatever might be the deeper causes of the bition of the Holy Coat at Treves. In 1844, Bishop Arnoldi appointed a special pilgrimage and service to this relic, to be preceded by confession and remisfrom J. Ronge (pronounced Rongé, the g hard), a sion of sins. This proceeding called forth a protest priest in Silesia, who, having quarrelled with the authorities of his church, had been suspended from his office, and was living in retirement. Ronge addressed a public letter to Bishop Arnoldi, October of the coat as idolatry. Ronge's voice found a 1, 1844, in which he characterised the exhibition vivid response in the minds of many Catholics, and was also approved by Protestants. A short time previous to the publication of this letter, J. Czerski, a priest at Schneidemühl, in Posen, had seceded from the Roman Catholic Church, and was about to form a congregation of Christian Aposdrawn into confederacy. Ronge at last addressed tolic Catholics.' Czerski and Ronge were naturally an appeal to the lower orders of the priesthood, calling upon them to use their influence in the pulpit and everywhere to break the power of the court of Rome, and priestcraft in general, throughout Germany; to set up a national German Church independent of Rome, and governed by councils and synods; to abolish auricular confession, the Latin mass, and the celibacy of the priests; and to aim at liberty of conscience for all Christians, GERMAN, COUSIN GERMAN PASTE. and perfect freedom for the religious education of children. The first congregation of the new church was formed at Schneidemühl, and took the name of Christian Catholic. The confession of faith, which was drawn up by Czerski, differed little in point of doctrine from that of the Catholic Church. The Holy Scriptures and the Nicene Creed were held to be the only standards of Christian faith, and were to be understood in the sense patent to every enlightened and pious Christian. Nothing was said against the worship of saints and relics, pilgrimages, confession, &c. This Confession of Schneidemühl served many other congregations as a groundwork, though some of them modified it in various ways, and expressed themselves more definitely. The new sect quickly increased. At the beginning of 1845, more than a hundred congregations were in existence. The congregation which was formed at Breslau is noticeable from the confession of faith which it issued, drawn up under the influence of Ronge, who had been chosen preacher. This confession completely departed from the doctrine and ritual of the Roman Catholic church. The Scripture was laid down to be the only rule of Christian faith, and no external authority, it was added, can be allowed to interfere with the free interpretation of it. The essentials of belief were restricted to a few doctrines: belief in God as the Creator and Governor of the world, and the Father of all men; in Christ as the Saviour, in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian Church, the forgiveness of sins, and eternal life. Baptism and the Lord's Supper were held to be the only sacraments. Confirmation was retained, but most of the rites and practices peculiar to the Roman Catholic church were given up. The need of something like concert being felt, the first council of German Catholics was held at Leipsic, March 22, 1845, and attended by deputies from many of the leading congregations, others signifying their willingness to abide by the decisions that might be come to. The principles of the Breslau Confession were mostly adopted. The interpretation of Scripture, the only source of Christian belief, was left to the free exercise of reason, pervaded and actuated by the 'Christian idea.' Forms of worship were to be adapted to the requirements of time and place. With regard to church government, the council declared in favour of the presbyterial and synodal constitution. The congregations were to have the free election of their clergy and eldership. The effect of this union was to increase the number of congregations, which by the end of 1845 amounted to about 300. Numbers of leading Catholics, professors and others, joined the movement; and learned Protestants, like Gervinus, looked upon it as a momentous event in the history of Germany. Individual Protestant clergymen went over to the body; and all those Protestants who, from dissatisfaction with the state church, had formed what are called 'free' or independent congregations, entered more or less into relations with it. The local boards and magistracy also shewed great favour to the cause, and often supported it by granting the use of Protestant churches, and even funds. tyrannical restrictions upon the 'Dissidents,' as they were styled by the authorities. In Baden, they were even denied the rights of burghers, while Austria, pre-eminent in religious bigotry, sent them out of her territories. It was more, however, internal disagreements than state persecutions that checked the prosperity of German Catholicism, as was to be anticipated from the wide discrepancy between the views of Czerski and those of Ronge. Czerski and his adherents held closely by the doctrines and ritual of Rome, and issued successive confessions, laying down more and more definitely the essential points of belief, such as the divinity of Christ, and other positive doctrines. Ronge's party, on the other hand, approached nearer and nearer to the Rationalists, and, leaving the province of religion altogether, occupied themselves with free-thinking theories and democratical politics. This led to numerous disagreements between congregations and clergymen, and discouraged the spread of the movement. When the second council was held in Berlin in 1847, the interest had greatly declined. When the great storm of 1848 burst, the German Catholics, as well as other bodies, had free space for their exertions, which, however, took mostly a political direction. Some additions were made to the number of the congregations, especially in Austria. Ronge was active in travelling and preaching, and although his freethinking and politi cal tendencies were repudiated by numbers of the body, they predominated in many places, and found expression in a series of publications, among others, in Rau's Catechism of the Christian Religion of Reason, and Shell's Book of Religion. After the political reaction set in, strong measures were taken against the German Catholics. The early enthusiasm of the movement apparently died out, and after the dissolution of the Frankfurt parliament, Ronge retired to London, where he has since resided. The individual congregations once formed still continue to exist, though in a depressed condition, except in Austria, where they have been altogether suppressed. conference was held at Köthen in 1850, at which it was proposed to form an alliance with the Free congregations formed of dissenters from the Protestant church, and a diet was fixed for 1852, but it did not meet. Since then, German Catholicism has been rapidly diminishing all over Germany, and at the Gotha conference of 1858 there were only 42 representatives present. Compare Kampe's Geschichte der Religiösen Bewegungen der Neueren Zeit (Leip. 1856). A The GERMAN, COUSIN-. Cousins-german, or first cousins, are those who are related to each other by their fathers and mothers having been sisters or brothers, or the father or mother of the one being the sister or brother of the other. term has no relation to German, in the sense of Teutonic, but comes from the Latin word germanus, which again is derived from germen, a young bud or branch. Cousins-german are, therefore, those who are the buds or branches of the same tree, and they have in reality always one grandfather in common. GERMAN OCEAN. See NORTH SEA. But German Catholicism was destined soon to find GERMAN PASTE, used for feeding birds such enemies both within and without. To say nothing as larks, thrushes, nightingales, and other singing. of orthodox Catholics, conservative Protestantism birds, especially those which in their wild state began to suspect it as an undermining of religion in feed chiefly upon insects. Take 2 lbs. pea-meal, general, and dangerous to the welfare of church lb. of sweet almonds blanched, lb. of fresh and state.' And as the movement fell in with the liberal tendencies of the times in general, the governments took the alarm, and set themselves to check its spread. Saxony took the lead, and Prussia soon followed, in imposing vexatious, and even butter or lard, 5 oz. moist sugar, dr. of hay saffron, and 3 eggs boiled hard. Beat them into a smooth paste, using sufficient water to give it the consistence required for granulating by passing it through a colander; then expose the granulated |