SECTION XII.

HISTORY.

THE ISRAELITES,

laged Sodom and Gomorrah, and went his way, carrying off with him into captivity Lot, Abraham's brother's son, who dwelt in Sodom. When tidings of this reached Abraham, he armed his trained servants, born

pursued, overtook, and smote the victors, thereby recovering the booty, and liberating Lot. We have already given a detailed account of these events, and therefore touch briefly on them here.

After these things, God made a covenant with Abraham, in which he promised him the land of Canaan as a possession to his posterity, foretelling him, at the same time, of the Egyptian bondage.

About this time, Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Hagar, was born. He was the great ancestor of the Arabs. For a detail of the singular circumstances connected with his birth and infancy, the reader is referred to the xvi. chap. of Genesis.

The history of this people is at once the most ex-in his own house; three hundred and eighteen, and traordinary and important of all others in the annals of mankind. It was the Israelites that were chosen by God to be the depository nation among whom the true religion should be preserved, while all the rest of the world were enveloped in the dark mists of superstition and idolatry. It was in this nation that the patriarchal line was continued; by them was the true history of the world preserved; and of them came the Founder of the glorious religion which we ourselves enjoy, and which is ultimately destined to overspread the earth. It is the history of this people that forms the principal subject of the sacred book which from our infancy we have been accustomed to revere, and with which we have been rendered familiar; on which account the Jewish character is invested in our feelings with a venerable sanctity which commands our most profound respect, and has also imparted to our own a shade of its moral hue. Believers in the God of Israel ourselves, and more conversant with their history than with that of our own country, even the mention of that people touches a sympathetic cord within us which nothing else can do. Their concerns seem as it were our own. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Moses, Joshua, and David, are to us as household words; and the individuals who once bore those names seem almost present with us. They seem not even like our ancestors; they are too near for that. But they appear like near relatives, intimate friends, living and acting at the moment. Feelings like these come over us in treating of the history of this wonderful people, and impart to it an interest which no other history can possess.

We have already traced the patriarchal line from Adam down to Abraham; and the latter individual we have accompanied from the country of his nativity to the land of Canaan.

Not long after his arrival in the latter country, there occurred a famine; whereupon he went to Egypt. But Sarah his wife being a very handsome woman, he requested her to say that she was his sister, fearing that the Egyptians would kill him for her sake, if they knew she was his wife. The fame of her beauty reaching the ears of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, he took her into his own house, and treated Abraham most generously on her account. But "the Lord plagued Pharaoh and his house with great plagues, because of Sarai, Abram's wife;" upon which Pharaoh expostulated with Abraham for calling her his sister, and restored her to him.

When Abraham was ninety-nine years of age, the Lord appeared to him, and changed his name from that of Abram to Abraham; "for," said he, "a father of many nations have I made thee." He also changed the name of his wife, calling her Sarah instead of Sarai, promising at the same time, that she should be the mother of a son, she having had no children hitherto, and being now ninety years of age. It was at the time of this interview that God instituted the rite of circumcision in the family of Abraham, which has been continued among his descendants to this very day.

The intercession of Abraham for Sodom has already been noticed. After the destruction of that place, he journeyed south, and dwelt in Gerar. Here again he called Sarah his sister; and Abimelech, the king of Gerar, sent and took her. "But God came to Abimelech by night, and said to him, Behold, thou art but a dead man, for the woman which thou hast taken; for she is a man's wife." In the morning, Abimelech called Abraham, and remonstrated with him in relation to the course he had pursued. Abraham excused himself on the ground of his fears. And yet indeed," said he, "she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother. And she became my wife." So Abimelech restored Sarah to Abraham.

At

According to promise, Sarah at length became the mother of a son. Abraham gave him the name of Isaac, and when he was eight years old, he circumcised him, according to the divine institution. length Ishmael, the son of Hagar by Abraham, feeling envious or malignant at the distinction conferred on Isaac, scoffed at it; upon which, he and his mother were turned out of doors by Sarah. The sequel we will leave till we take up the history of his descend

ants.

LITERATURE.

(From the Penny Cyclopædia.)
ALPHABETS.

After this, Abraham returned to the land of Canaan. He had not been long there, before he had occasion to signalize himself in a military exploit. Five of the kings of Canaan revolted against Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, (a portion of Persia,) which, as a matter of course, produced a war. Chedorlaomer, with his own forces, and those of his allies, invaded the revolted coun- Alphabet is the name given to the series of letters tries, and spread desolation far and wide. He was at used in different countries at different times. The length met by the revolted monarchs, with their armies, term is borrowed from the Greek language, in which in the vale of Siddim, and a bloody battle ensued. alpha, beta, are the first two letters; or if we go a Chedorloamer gained the victory; after which he pil-step farther back, we should derive the word from the

VOL. II.-12

Hebrew, which gives to the corresponding letters the names aleph, beth. Thus the formation of the word is precisely analogous to that of our familiar expression, the A, B, C.

modern date, and if so, there is nothing very violent
in the supposition that they may have been derived by
degradation from an earlier pictorial form, as the en-
chorial of
from the cone Egyptians, it is now established, arose
of their hieroglyphics. But not to
rely too strongly upon theory, we may appeal to what
are virtually Hebrew alphabets, though called Phoni-
cian and Samaritan.

Beth

Hebrew.

Phanician.

Alphabets from right to left.

Samaritan.

1 2. 3- 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

The hieroglyphic characters of Egypt bear upon the very face of them decided proof that they are in their origin pictorial emblems; and that they constitute a language, appears incontrovertibly from the triple Rosetta inscription, the Greek version of which expressly affirms, that the decree contained in the inscription was ordered to be written in three different characters, the sacred letters, the letters of the country, and the Greek. The second of these classes has been called the enchorial, from the Greek term (lyxópios) signifying of the country, or else demotic, (nporikos) i. e. of the people. But although the hieroglyphic characters may be for the most part pictorial emblems, used directly for the objects which they represent, or metaphorically for other associated ideas, it has been estab- Aleph lished by most satisfactory evidence, that they were also in some cases representatives of articulate sound, not, however, of the whole oral name belonging to their original object, but solely of the initial letter, or perhaps syllable. This use of the sacred pictorial characters as symbols of sound was perhaps originally confined to the expression of proper names. Such, for instance, is their use in the hieroglyphic division of the Rosetta inscription for the name of Ptolemy, and in another inscription for that of Cleopatra. Thus, the former name might be expressed hieroglyphically in our own language by the pictures of a pig, a top, an owl, Cheth B 8 a lion, and a mouse. It should be added, however, that when the sacred symbols are used with this phonetic or vocal power for royal names, they are included in an oval ring or cartouche. The enchorial character seems at first to bear little or no resemblance to the Caph hieroglyphic; but a comparison of various manuscripts

× × ×A A
9949
Gimel A 715
Daletha AAT

He

Vau

Zain

Theth
Iod

ས

77 ㄓˇ 33

that have been found in mummies, containing parallel Lamed L

The Hebrew alphabet again affords double evidence of the same nature. The names of the letters, it is Tau well known, are also the names of material objects, some of the very objects, in fact, which would be well U adapted to pictorial representation. A part of these names, it is true, are obsolete in the Hebrew language as at present known, that is the authority for their meaning is solely traditional, as they are not found in the existing writings of the language; but this fact, while it affords evidence that the names are not the result of forgery, is precisely what must necessarily have occurred in those changes to which all language is exposed in the long course of ages. We subjoin a table with the Hebrew names of the letters, which it will be seen have been borrowed, with slight changes, for many other alphabets. But it will be objected, that, in fact, the letters, whatever they may be called, bear no pictorial resemblance to the objects which it is pretended they represent. If the Hebrew characters alone be considered, this objection will not be unreasonable. But there is strong reason for believing that the present Hebrew characters are of comparatively

NA

M

In the preceding plate, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, the reader will see specimens of these alphabets. The first two are taken from Boeckh's Inscriptions, pp. 523, 527, and from the coins given by Mionnet. Samaritan characters are taken solely from Mionnet. Now among these, we find a few at least which, even to the sober minded, bear considerable resemblance to the natural objects. The first letter in these alphabets, aleph, it is well known means an or; indeed, the terms pas, elephas, elephant, of the Greek, Latin, and English languages, seem to be derived from this Hebrew name. If in Syria the name aleph was extended to the elephant, just as the Greeks applied their term crocodile, properly a lizard to the monster

"of the Nile-when the word came to the western na-¡ more venerable names of Hebrew, Phoenician, and Sations in connexion with the elephant, the original sense maritan. The mere wave, then, we contend, was would be readily lost in the secondary. The Romans probably the original form of the mem: the initial or too called the same animal Bos Lucas, the Lucanian concluding stroke of the wave becoming, by a kind of Or. The most simple mode of representing an ox flourish, longer than the others, leads to the so called would be by a picture of its head and horns; and if Etruscan and Greek forms in columns 6, 9, &c. This any one will turn the engraving of our second Phoeni- long descending stroke takes a bend in the Samaritan cian character so as to have the angular point down- and Hebrew characters towards the left; as was not wards, he will see a very fair picture of an ox's head, unnatural in a language where the words run in that with its two horns, and ears into the bargain. Those direction. By a comparison of the gimel, nun, ayin, who are determined to take nothing for the representa- and pe, and perhaps caph, with the corresponding lettive of an ox that has not a body, four legs, and a tail, ters in the other alphabets, the reader will perhaps be may be asked to account for the astronomical figure of induced to ascribe the bottom strokes, which in these taurus in the zodiac. letters also run to the left, to the same accidental oriAgain, the Hebrew name for the letter m was mem, gin. This supposition is strongly confirmed by the and this also was the name for water. Now a very fact, that the caph, nun, pe, and tsadi, when they are ordinary symbol for water is a zigzag line, which is no the final letters of word, omit this appendage, and in doubt intended to imitate undulation or rippling. We its place have the perpendicular stroke merely continfind this symbol for aquarius in the zodiac, and we ued in the same direction downwards, a little beyond find it also in Greek manuscripts, both for Balacea the its usual length. Our last example shall be from ayin, sea, and dup water, the former word having the sym- which is at once the name of a letter and the word bol inclosed in a large circle or theta, the latter having which signifies an eye. The eye happens moreover to its aspirate duly placed above the waving line. Indeed, be an hieroglyphic character of the Egyptians, and, every boy in his first attempt to draw water, represents therefore, we cannot be surprised to find it among the it by a zigzag line. But before we point out in the Hebrew symbols. Nay, if we may believe Champolwritten characters what we look upon as representing lion, the pieture of an eye in the Egyptian hieroglyphthe wave, or (to be candid) as being the corrupted re-ics was actually used at times for an o, exactly as ayin mains of what once was a wave, we must premise a by the Hebrews, Now, though an eye might be reprefew words on the characters of the older Western lan- sented at first with tolerable precision, it would, in the guages. We have already asserted our belief, that the inevitable course of degradation, soon become a mere Hebrew characters now used are of more recent form oval, or rather circle (for the eyes of animals are genethan those in the Phoenician and Samaritan alphabets rally circular) with a small dot in the centre to mark -we will now go one step farther, and express our the pupil. Such a character is actually found in the opinion, that in many of the characters, the Greek Greek series of alphabets. The form afterwards lost alphabet and the Etruscan (which, notwithstanding its its inserted point, and at times was corrupted into a independent name, is a mere offset from the Greek) lozenge or even a triangle. In Dr. Young's successive generally present a more accurate picture of the ori- plates of parallel passages from Egyptian MSS. (Enginal letters than those of the three former alphabets. cycl. Brit. Supp. Pl. 78. N.) the reader may see an That all these alphabets are identical in their origin, emblem, consisting of a circle with a point in it, gradwe will presently show more in detail. It is enough ually wearing down in MSS, less and less carefully here to rely upon the evidence of Herodotus, (v. 58) written, until it becomes at first a mere circle, and then who expressly affirms (and he speaks from his per- something more like a triangle. After what has been sonal examination) that the Ionians received their we need hardly repeat that the Hebrew form apcharacters from the Phoenicians, and that they were pears again in a very corupted state. tail has been actually called Phoenician. Now, there is no doubt added, upon the principle explained above, and the that the inscriptions from which we have taken the careless writer has failed to make his circle meet at Greek characters of our plate, are older, at least, than the top, an accident which may be also traced in the either the Phoenician inscriptions given in Boeckh, or Hebrew theth. Indeed, the letters ayin and theth may the coins which furnished Mionnet with his characters. be compared in nearly all their forms. Those who Hence, we may naturally expect to find at times in the examine the changes of letters, will not be surprised oldest Greek characters traces of a higher antiquity that what was at first an accident, became at last a and purer forms than in those which pass under the fixed rule in the formation. banung ei bonsels endi mon Asia Jang we ad asbe d nos doidw Jim-bed edit got adn wolled on o

A representation of the VORTICELLA SENTA, magnified One Hundred and Forty-four Thousand Four Hundred Times. In No. 4 of our first Vol. we gave a microscopic various species of animalcula, The preceding cut is view of a drop of water, exhibiting it as peopled with a representation of one of these minute creatures, im

mensely magnified by a microscope. The following is a description, as contained in that No. of the Magazine, which we repeat here in connexion with the cut. A very perfect animal is discovered by the microscope in rain water, which has stood for some days in leaden gutters, or hollows on the tops of houses. This is called the vorticella, or wheel-animal. Its most remarkable distinction is the apparatus from which it derives its name, and which from all its descriptions, would appear strongly to resemble the paddles of a steam-boat. They change their shape considerably in different views, but it seems pretty evident that they are circular wheels, which perform entire revolutions, and are provided with cogs similar to those on the balance-wheel of a watch. All the actions of this creature, says an observer, indicate sagacity and quickness

of sensation. At the least touch or motion in the wa ter, they instantly draw in their wheels; and it is conjectured that the eyes of this creature are placed somewhere about this apparatus, as while in the maggot state its motions are slow and blundering, but after the wheels are protruded, they are performed with great regularity, swiftness and steadiness. It is by these rotary organs, also, that they are supposed to breathe. Some very important discoveries have lately been made by Ehrenberg in his observations on these singular beings. By feeding infusoria with very pure coloured substances, as indigo and carmine, he has ascertained the existence of mouths, stomachs, and intestines, and many interesting particulars relating to their structure and functions.

the inspired prophet Isaiah: "Come down and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon-sit on the ground. There is no throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans; for thou shalt no more be called tender and delicate; take the mill stones and grind meal."

It is the custom in the East for families to grind the corn and prepare the flour which they use at home. The accompanying plate represents a Hindoo family engaged in this employment. The woman on the outside is cleansing the corn by pouring it on the floor against the wind, which carries away the dust and The occupation of grinding the corn is generally light particles that have become mixed with it. The performed by women, though it is not unfrequently corn thus cleaned is poured, a few handfuls at a time, committed to men, as will be seen by our print, which into the hollow at the top of the hand-mill, which con- is copied from a drawing made on the spot, and pubsists of two stones, about two feet and a half in diam-lished as one of a series of engravings by an ingenious eter, and six inches thick. A stout wooden pivot con- native artist at Madras. nects the upper with the lower stone. The corn that is poured in at the top falls in between the two stones, and the turning round of the upper stone reduces it to flour, in which state it works out at the rim, and falls on a cloth spread to receive it. The flour is winnowed and sifted on the floor.

There is a remarkable passage in St. Matthew, where our Saviour is pressing upon his disciples the necessity of being always in a state of preparation, as well for the signal calamities of this life-such as the destruction which was to fall on Jerusalem-as for the sudden coming of the Day of Judgment. He warns The sort of corn-mill here represented is common them to reflect on the certainty that what is announced in all parts of the East, and has been in use from the by God would come to pass; and not to look for warnearliest ages. We find frequent mention of it in Scrip- ings which should give them time for individual preture. The family mill was so essential to the prepa-paration, for the world will be found engaged in its ration of daily food, that it was forbidden by the law of Moses to take in pledge "the upper or the nether mill-stone;" and the reason stated for this prohibition is, that he who should do so, "taketh a man's life to pledge."-When Abimelech, after the defeat of the Shechemites, attacked the town of Thebez, and was about to set fire to the tower in which the inhabitants had taken refuge, a brave woman destroyed the oppressor by throwing on his head from the wall a stone of the household mill. The fall and degradation of Babylon is thus foretold in the beautiful imagery of

ordinary pursuits when such mighty events occur"For, as in the days that were before the flood, they were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in mar riage, until the day that Noah entered the ark, and knew not till the flood came, and took them all away; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be. Then shall two be in the field; the one shall be taken and the other left; two women shall be grinding at the mill,-the one shall be taken and the other left."

It is very remarkable that mills of a similar con struction are mentioned by Pennant as in use in the