the most generous deeds.'1 On assuming the imperial dignity, he at first acted with prudence, generosity and clemency; 2 but in his latter years he became a slave to the vilest passions, and committed the most horrible barbarities without the slightest compunction. He is nevertheless favourably mentioned as a patron of learning, and a considerable number of eminent men adorned his reign.

History.-Tiberius, the step-son and successor of Augustus, ascended the imperial throne at the advanced age of fiftysix years. As a successful military commander this prince undoubtedly deserved the respect of every patriotic Roman, but on account of his repulsive manners and cruel tendencies his succession to the empire gave satisfaction to no class of the community. He was, however, no sooner able to ascertain the general feeling which predominated in the minds of his subjects than he endeavoured to establish himself more securely on the throne by causing several of the most eminent members of the imperial family to be put to death.5

as

In the third year of his reign Asia Minor was visited by

1 His rhetorical preceptor, Theodorus of Gadara, used to speak of him a composition of mud mixed with blood.'

2 While his mother lived his passions were rebuked, and in some degree controlled,' but after her death (which occurred in the 15th year of his reign), all restraint was thrown off, and both the prince and his minister (Sejanus) broke out with unbridled fury.' (Tac. Ann. v. 3.)

3 At Capreæ he gave a loose to his inordinate appetites, a tyrant even to his pleasures. New modes of sensuality were invented, and new terms for scandalous refinements in lascivious pleasure. Slaves were employed to provide objects of desire, with full commission to allure the venal with presents, and to conquer the reluctant by threats and violence.' (Tac. Ann. vi. 1.)

4 'He was now so far plunged in blood that executions seemed only to whet his cruelty. At one blow he ordered all who were detained in prison for their supposed connection with Sejanus to be put to instant death. A dreadful carnage followed: neither sex nor age was spared; the noble and ignoble perished without distinction; dead bodies in mangled heaps, or scattered up and down, presented a tragic spectacle. Neither friend nor relation dared to approach; none were permitted to soothe the pangs of death,-to weep over the deceased, or to bid the last farewell.' (Tac. Ann. vi. 19.)

5 E.g. Agrippa Posthumus, the grandson of Augustus, and only surviving son of Julia and Agrippa, and his own adopted Germanicus, the father of Caius Caligula. The former was numbered among the first of his victims, the latter in A.D. 19, at Antioch in Syria, through the instrumentality of Piso, the Governor, and his wife Plancina.

one of the most terrible earthquakes noted in the page of history, which resulted in the destruction of twelve of its most famous cities. On hearing of this calamity, Tiberius endeavoured to alleviate the sufferings of the surviving inhabitants by causing their taxes to be remitted and vast sums of money to be forwarded for their use, equal to the loss which each individual had personally sustained. He likewise restored the ill-fated cities to their former splendour. By such acts of timely generosity he gained the affections of many. But all his efforts having failed to secure the confidence and esteem of the multitude, he finally resolved to withdraw from public notice. Accordingly, in the twelfth year of his reign, he retired to a small and delightful island named Capreæ, opposite to Naples, leaving the chief power in the hands of a corrupt person named Sejanus.

This unprincipled minister had already been instrumental in causing the secret removal of the emperor's son by poison,1 and by a repetition of such diabolical acts,2 he undoubtedly looked forward with a degree of certainty to the time when he might claim the imperial diadem as his own. Tiberius, however, suspecting the motives which regulated his actions, privately watched his movements,3 and soon found sufficient cause to believe that his previous suspicions were not illfounded. Sejanus was accordingly accused of treason and executed, and as a further demonstration of loyalty his dead body was fixed to a hook, dragged through the streets of Rome, and afterwards cast into the Tiber. These events occurred about A.D. 30.

The next lavished favours and honours on a young emperor man named Caius, a son of Germanicus. This artful prince had accompanied him to his island retreat, and by his many acts of dissimulation had so far secured his esteem that

1 Viz., in A.D. 23, after first entering into an adulterous intercourse with his wife.

2 He next turned his attention against the widow and sons of Germanicus (Agrippina--Nero, Drusus, and Caius), and in A.D. 29 he caused Agrippina and Nero to be banished.

3 Jos. Ant. xviii. 6. 6. 'Sejanus had certainly gained his point had not Antonia's boldness been more wisely conducted than Sejanus's malice, for, when she had discovered his designs against Tiberius, she wrote him an exact account of the whole.'

Seneca differs from this account. He says, Sejanus was torn in pieces by the populace, and nothing remained for the executioner to throw into the river.'

he eventually nominated him his successor. As might have been expected, the concluding scene quickly followed. The emperor was shortly afterwards taken suddenly ill, and fainted. In the hope that the hour of his dissolution had at length arrived, the honours of the imperial office were instantly conferred upon Caius. Meanwhile, the emperor was fast recovering from the effects of his indisposition. But rather than fall a victim to the tyrant's displeasure a disaffected subject named Macro smothered him with pillows.

Thus Tiberius ended his miserable career in the 78th year of his age, and the 23rd of his reign.?

Treatment of the Jews.-As long as Tiberius was directed by the counsels of Sejanus, the Jews were cruelly oppressed,3 but immediately after the death of that wicked minister, the emperor issued an edict in their favour. All the governors of the provinces were now commanded to treat them with justice and gentleness, and we are informed by the historians of the period that after this they enjoyed peace for a considerable time.

While the Jews of the empire, in general, experienced in no small degree the good effects of the emperor's new policy, those of Judea suffered as before.

Vitellius was now governor of Syria, and Pontius Pilate procurator of Judea. The latter, in violation of his instructions, treated his Jewish subjects with much injustice and cruelty. But after suffering the effects of his prejudice for several years his injured subjects sought protection from his tyranny by appealing to Vitellius. Pilate was accordingly commanded to appear before Cæsar to answer for his many acts of oppression, and the honours of his office were conferred on an apparently far more deserving officer named Marcellus.

Two years after the death of Our Lord, Vitellius visited Jerusalem at the feast of the passover, and was most honourably received by the rulers and people. As an acknowledgment of their loyalty he conferred several important favours upon them. The sacred vestments and ornaments of the high

The reasons given by Josephus for this arrangement will be found in his Ant. xviii. 6. 9.

2 Vide Tac. Ann. vi. 50, 51.

3 On one occasion, in consequence of the misdeeds of four impious Jews, all belonging to that nation were banished from Rome. 4,000 of them were sent as soldiers into Sardinia, while even a greater number who refused to enlist were punished for their obstinacy. (Ant. xviii. 3. 5.)

priest were committed to their care, as in the days of their forefathers. The entire tax on the fruits was remitted. Caiaphas, the high priest, was deposed, and Jonathan, the son of Ananus, the former high priest, was appointed to succeed him.1

At a later period, accompanied by Herod the tetrarch and other friends, Vitellius again visited Jerusalem, whilst on his journey to punish Aretas, King of Arabia.2 During a brief stay of three days he deprived Jonathan of the high priesthood, and nominated his brother Theophilus as his successor.3 On the fourth day letters arrived informing him of the death of the emperor; the expedition into Arabia was consequently set aside and he immediately returned to Antioch.*

II. CAIUS.

Reigned 4 years.5 A.D. 37-41.

6

Character. The natural abilities of Caius, commonly known by the epithet Caligula, were good, and his attainments on the whole perhaps above the average. During the reign of Tiberius his natural tendencies were kept under restraint,7 but he had no sooner obtained the crown than he freely followed the inclinations of his unbridled passions without shame

or remorse.

1 Vide Jos. Ant. xviii. 4. 3.

2A misunderstanding concerning the boundaries of the two principalities (viz. of Aretas and of Herod Antipas) had been aggravated into an inveterate quarrel by Herod's unfaithfulness to the daughter of the Arabian king, and his shameful attachment to his brother Philip's wife.' Herod wrote to Rome, and obtained an order for assistance from Vitellius, the governor of Syria. But when Vitellius was on his march through Judea from Antioch towards Petra, he suddenly heard of the death of Tiberius, and the Roman army was withdrawn before the war was brought to a conclusion.'

This Theophilus was afterwards removed by Agrippa I. in the beginning of the reign of Claudius. (Vide Jos. Ant. xix. 6. 2.)

+ Vitellius was now succeeded in office by Petronius.

5 Three years eight months. (Jos. Ant. xix. 2. 5.)

6 'He was an excellent orator, and thoroughly acquainted with the Greek tongue as well as with his own country or Roman language. He was also able off-hand and readily to give answers to compositions made by others, of considerable length and accuracy.' (Jos. Ant. xix. 2. 5.)

7 This young prince had the art to conceal, under the veil of modesty, the most detestable of human characters.' (Tac. Ann. vi. 20.)

Shortly after his accession he was seized with a most acute disease, which appears to have left him almost devoid of reason.1 From this time forth all his actions were those of a maniac, and his enormities such as can scarcely be surpassed.2

History.-Caligula succeeded to the imperial dignity under the most favourable circumstances. Having been nursed in the arms of the legions, his influence with the soldiery was boundless, and as he was the only surviving son of the almost deified Germanicus, his succession was not less welcome to the nation at large. His first acts as emperor gave universal satisfaction, and portended, as many supposed, the approach of happier times; but before one short year had passed by, the very nature of the once beloved Caligula appeared to have undergone a mysterious change. From this time forth his follies and cruelties stand almost unparalleled.3

On one occasion, finding there were no criminals condemned to fight with the wild beasts, after the barbarous custom of the times, he ordered numbers of the spectators to be thrown in, previously causing their tongues to be cut out, that they might not by their cries disturb his inhuman diversions.' Elated by absolute power and the abject submission of all ranks, he set himself up as a god, dedicated a temple to his own divinity, and sold the priestly dignity for vast sums. Finally, to crown his follies, he became priest to himself and admitted to the same honourable office his wife Cæsonia 5 and his favourite horse Incitatus.

4

1 'He sometimes put on women's clothes, and wrapped himself in some embroidered garments to them belonging, and did a great many other things to make the company mistake him for a woman.' (Jos. Ant. xix. 1. 5.)

2 The prediction of Tiberius was fully verified. I suffer that son of Germanicus,' said he, 'to live, that he may be in time a public calamity, and the fatal author of his own destruction. In him I nourish a serpent for the people of Rome, and another Phaeton for the world at large.'

3 Jos. Ant. xviii. 7. 2. 'But in process of time he went beyond the bounds of human nature.'

4 'He also asserted his own divinity, and insisted on greater honours to be paid him by his subjects than are due to mankind.' (Jos. Ant, xix. 1. 1.)

5 At first Caligula had lived in incest with his own sister Drusilla, and Suetonius, as quoted by Spanheim, adds that he was guilty of the same crime with all his sisters. (Vide Whiston's Jos. Ant. xix. 2. 5 and note.) On the death of Drusilla in A.D. 38, he married a wealthy woman named Lollia, whom he afterwards exchanged for this Cæsonia. The